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CmCDLARS OF INFORMATION 



7'H' 



BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 



ISTo. 1 — 1873. 



eiSTOEICAL SUMMARY AND REPORTS OX THE SYSTEMS OF 

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SPAIN, BOLIVIA, 

URUGUAY, AND PORTUGAL. 



WASHI:N"GT0X: 

OOYERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1873. 



CONTENTS 



Page. 

Letter of the Commissioner to the Secretary of the Interior 5 

Education in Spain : 

Introtluction 9 

History of education in Spain 9 

The rule of Sertorius - 9 

Establishment of the Eoman power 10 

Spain during the first period of the Eoman empire 11 

Famous schools and teachers during the first century of the Christian era. 11 

Early courses of instruction 12 

Intolerance of the Spanish Church 12 

Eeigns of the first Gothic kings 13 

Eminent Christian teachers 13 

Invasions by the Vandals, Suevians, and Goths 13 

Differences between the Goths and the Spaniards 13 

Intolerance toward the Jews 14 

Education during the seventh century 14 

The invasion of the Moors : 16 

The reign of Hashem I 16 

The reign of Abderrahman II i 16 

The reign of Mohammed I 17 

The reigns of Abderraham III. and Alhakem II 17 

Free-schools 18 

The reign of Hashem II 18 

The reign of Hadshib 19 

General character of the Moorish period 19 

Moorish view of education 20 

The Moorish schools 20 

The Christians during the Moorish period- 21 

Education in the tenth century 21 

Foundation of the University of Salamanca 22 

The educational efforts of Alphons X 22 

Establishment of new academies and universities 23 

The discovery of America and its .consequences. — The inquisition and the 

Jesuits 24 

Famous scholars of the sixteenth century 25 

Attempt at educational reform by Simon Abril 26 

State of education during the first half of the eighteenth century 27 

State of education during the second half of the eighteenth century 28 

The French invasion 29 

The constitution of 1812 29 

The period of civil wars 30 

Eecent history, 1845-1873 30 

The educational law of 1857 31 

Supreme educational authority 32 

Provincial and local educational authorities 32 

Primary instruction 33 



Page. 
li^DL'CATiox IX Spain — Continued. 

Statistics 33 

Secondary instruction 34 

Kormal-scbools .: . 34 

Superior instruction ft 34 

Special instruction 35 

Educatiox IX Bolivia : 

Constitutional provisions regarding education 39 

History of public instruction ' 39 

Primary instruction , ,.. . . 40 

Infant-schools 41 

Female colleges 41 

Secondary instruction 4^ 

Superior instruction 42 

Academies of forensic practice 43 

Art-colleges . , 43 

Mining-schools 43 

Libraries and public museums ; 43 

Agricultural college 44 

Educatiox'^ IX UitrGUAV : 

Legal provisions for public instruction 47 

Statistics 49 

EoucATiox IN Portugal : 

Early history _ 53 

Portugal under the Bnrgundian dynasty - 53 

Portugal under the Aviz dynasty, 1385-1580 55 

Portugal under Spanish rule, 1581-1640 55 

First establishment of the Jesuits in Portugal 55 

The reforms of Minister Pombal 56 

From Pombal's downfall to the present time 57 

Present state of education in Portugal : Primary instruction ; course of 

instruction 59 

Attendance at school 60 

"Want of good text-books 60 

Inspection CO 

Teachers : 61 

Night-schools 61 

Establishment of new schools 61 

Statistics of primary instruction ' 62 

Secondary instruction 62 

Superior instruction 64 

Special instruction 65 



LETTER. 



Department of the IjSterioe, 

Bureau of Education, 

Washington, J). C, Aijril, 1873. 

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following Reports on Education 
in various foreign countries, which contain information of interest to 
educators. 

The historical summaries of the educational efforts in Spain and Por- 
tugal are considered essential to a correct understanding of their x)res- 
ent educational status. 

The official reports furnished to this Office by the courtesy of the Bra- 
zilian minister have been carefully translated. Their publication seems 
desirable, as they contain information not otherwise accessible. 

The papers herewith submitted consist — 

First. Of an Historical Summary of Education in Spain, translated 
from Schmid's Ediicational Cyclopedia. 

Second. Of a Eeport upon Education in Bolivia, made to the Brazilian 
government by the Brazilian minister at La Paz, in April, 1872. 

Third. Of a Eeport upon Education in Uruguay, made to the Bra- 
zilian government by the Brazilian minister at Montevideo, in March, 
1872. ^ 

For these two reports I am indebted to Councilor A. P. de Carvalho 
Borges, envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary of Brazil. 

Fourth. Education in Portugal. The historical summary taken from 
Schmid's Educational Cyclopedia ; the report on primary education, fur- 
nished by Mr. J. C. Rodrigues, editor of J^ovo Mundo, an illustrated 
Portuguese journal published in New York ; the account of the system 
of higher instruction is derived from Schmid's Educational Cyclopedia 
and from the. official report of the Brazilian minister at Lisbon. 

1 request your approval of the publication of these papers as a circu- 
lar of information. 

Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

JOHN EATON, Jr., 



Hon. Columbus Delano, 

Secretary of the Interior. 



Commissioner. 



Approved and printing ordered. 



C. DELANO, 

Secretary of the Interior. 



EDUCATION IN SPAIN. 



EDUCATION IN SPAIN. 



INTRODrCTIO>% 

Spain, after baViog remained for centuries in a state of lethargy, has, 
within the past few years, made uoticable progress in general enlight- 
enment and civilization. 

That her former state of indilference was not her normal condition, 
but that on the contrary there are in the Spanish nation elements capa- 
ble of the highest development, which need only the warming and en- 
livening sunshine of a wise and liberal government, is shown in the re- 
cent reformatory^ movements, and will be confirmed by a brief review 
of her educational history during the past ages. 

In the following historical summary the excellent article contributed 
by Professor Le Eoy, of the university at Liege, Belgium, to Dr. Schmid's 
Educational Cyclopedia* has been chiefly consulted. 

HISTOKT OF EDUCATION IN SPAIN. 

The oldest known inhabi.tants of the Spanish peninsula were the Ibe- 
rians. In prehistoric times Celtic nations invaded the country from the 
north, and after long and sanguinary wars, gradually intermingling 
and intermarrying with the natives, formed the nation of the Celtibe- 
rians. The country was first made known to the rest of the world by 
the Phenicians, who founded colonies, of which Cadiz was the most 
important. They were followed by the Greeks, who founded the colony 
of Saguntum ; and the Greeks, in their turn, by the Carthaginians, who 
founded New Carthage, now Carthagena. During the Punic wars the 
Carthaginians, who had gradually subjugated the greater part of Spain, 
were driven out by the Eomans, and Spain became, at least in name, a 
Eoman province, for the conquest of the whole peninsula was not com- 
pleted till A. D. 19. 

THE RULE or SERTORIUS. 

In the year 8.3 B. C, Sertorius, a Eoman general, after the first civil 
war, fled to Spain ; with him we may appropriately begin our educa- 
tional history. Landing in Spain, he found the last scattered remains 
of the party for which he had fought in Italy. He succeeded in gain- 

* Educational Cyclopedia, {'' Eticijclopadie des Erziehmge- mid Uiiterrichisicesens") editcil 
l)y Dr. K. A, Schniid, Eectovof the Gymnasium at Stuttgart. 81st part, 1871. 



10 

ing the coufldeiice of the native chiefs to such a degree that soon he 
became the recognized ruler of the country. In order to strengthen his 
throne and to accustom the natives to a regular form of government, he 
determined to transplant the Eoman institutions to Spain ; he formed a 
Senate of three hundred members, and introduced the military i)ractice 
of his native country. But this far-seeing man did even more; he as- 
sembled in Osca (Huesca in Aragon) a large number of young men of 
the best families and had them instructed by competent teachers in the 
science and literature of Greece and liome. He personally superin- 
tended their studies, and from time to time held examinations, at which 
he awarded prizes to the best scholars. Thus we read in Plutarch that 
he gladdened the hearts of the fathers, when they saw their sons in 
their togas lined with purple and the " hidW^ suspended from the neck. 
This was the distinction won at school and at the same time a pledge of 
faithfulness to the benefactor of Spaiu. It soon, however, became evi- 
dent that in instituting this school the design of Sertorius was just as 
much to secure hostages as to raise the standard of education, aud a 
national reaction began to set in, which finall}' culminated in open 
revolt. In the suppression of the rebellion Sertorius made himself en- 
tirely unpopular, for he let his vengeance fall upon these youths, some of 
them being killed and others sold as slaves. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EOMAN POWER. 

If at that time i\\&JEneid had been written, the Spaniards might well 
have applied the " Timeo Danaos^^ to themselves. Perpenna's dagger 
freed them from the murderer of their children. Perpenua soon had to 
make way for Pompey, and Eome cast a broader shadow than ever over 
Spain. But it took all the energy of the last-mentioned general, and 
finally the terror that preceded Ciesar's arms, to bend underneath the 
Eoman yoke those nations which then, as to-day, imbibed the spirit of 
provincial independence with their mother's milk. On account of this 
marked personal independence their revolts were always wanting in 
unity of purpose, and therefore easily suppressed. The consolidation 
of the Eoman power found, on the other hand, a powerful help in the 
prevalence of the Latin language, which during the time of the Scipios 
had first been introduced in Spain, and which after the expulsion of the 
Carthaginians had spread Mith incredible ease and rapidity even as far 
as Btetica, leaving the original idioms to the most inaccessible mount- 
ain regions. According to Strabo a Spaniard could scarcely be distin- 
guished from a Eoman in the time of Augustus. During the lifetime of 
Cicero several poets from Corduba were admii^ed in Eome; but this close 
observer found yet in their pronunciation '■'•pingue quiddam atque pere- 
grinum,^^ (something heavy and foreign.) The blending of the two 
nations became so complete, however, that it may be said without ex- 
aggeration that Spain, with the exception perhaps of Galicia and As- 
turia, which were never completely subjugated, had become the most 



11 

Komau of all the proviuces of the empire. An allusion to these Ganta- 
brian wars is fouucl iu Juvenal, {Satire viii,) where he says : '■'■ Horrida 
vitanda est Hisimni,'''' &c. As regards the portions bordering- on the 
Mediterranean, especially Andalusia, Roman influence became all-power- 
ful 5 as a direct consequence of this influence a large number of Span- 
iards came to Home every year, and, as the Greeks had done before them, 
surpassed their conquerors on the held of literature and science. 

SPAIN DURING THE FIRST PERIOD OF THE ROMAN EIVIPIRE. 

Latin eloquence declined in Italy from the first days of the empire ; 
natural eloquence was supplanted by rhetorical trickery. Poetry shone 
in its greatest splendor during the reign of j^ugustus. It was a reflec- 
tion of the bright light that had been kindled in Greece, but during the 
reign of Tiberius it lost its natural beauty and its serene gracefulness ; 
men of deeper thought sought refuge in stoic philosophy, while the 
governing power found its chief support in the thoughtless multitude. 
It flattered their insatiable desire for sensual enjoyments, and built 
the Goliseum, the true temple of Cojsarism. It is a fact worthy of note 
that in those times of trials, of terrors, and of insane orgies, Spaniards 
represented in Eome the spirit of old Eome ; and the accession to the 
throne of two Spanish nobles, Trajan and Hadrian, once more arrested 
the fatal course of the empire hurrying to destruction, and made a brief 
but brilliant era in the history of Eoman art and literature. 

FAMOUS SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS DURING THE FIRST CENTURY OF 

THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 

The schools of Gorduba seem to have been particularly flourishing 
during the first century of the Ghristian era. From these schools there 
came to Eome the orator M. Po'rcius Latro, among whose pupils were 
men like Augustus, Maecenas, Agrippa, and Ovid ; his intimate friend 
M. Annieus Seneca, the father of the philosopher, and L. Anna?us 
Seneca himself, whose teacher was Hyginus, likewise (at least according 
to the best authorities) a Gorduban. Seneca's nephew Lucan was edu- 
cated iu Eome, but indirectly he was, through the intercourse with his 
uncle, under a strong Spanish influence. The poet Sextilius Henna, 
the public reader Tictorius Statorius, and many others of less note 
might be mentioned, but they all fade away before more famous names, 
which show how far education had spread throughout the whole of 
Spain. Quintilian, the author of excellent educational works, and of 
the most complete treatise on rhetoric among the ancients, was a native 
of Galagurris, (Galahorra in the present Spanish province of Logrono.) 
It is well known how successful he was as a teacher of eloquence, first 
in Spain and afterward in Eome, but it is perhaps less generally known 
that he was the first who drew a salary as sucli from the government. 
Martial, the epigrammatist, born at Bilbilis, (Galatayud in the present 
province of Saragossa;) Golumella, the agronomic writer from Gadiz ; 



12 

Poinponius Mela, the geograplier, from the neighborhood of Mellaria in 
Bpetica ; Silius Italicus, the poet f Florus, the compiler ; Antonius 
Julianus, and Herennius Senecio, the scholars of Quintilian; and finally 
Yoconins, the friend of the younger Pliny. As a man of learning and 
patron of the sciences and arts, the Emperor Hadrian may likewise 
claim a i^Iace among the famous names. Stars of the first magnitude 
■were rare among the constellations of the empire, but it must be borne 
in mind that the golden age was irrevocably past. The language of 
Cicero had lost more of its original purity and elegance in Spain than 
in Italy, and many of her later writers excelled iu nothing but a bom- 
bastic style — an artificial, exaggerated mode of expression ; in high- 
flown essays on insignificant subjects; in the affected severity of the 
stoics, which but little agrees with a refined aesthetic feeling. But in 
spite of this it is nevertheless true that the Spaniards have a great 
share in the literary renaissance, which characterizes the period between 
the reign of Vespasian and the time of the Antonines. 

EARLY COUESES OF INSTRUCTION. 

Columella's book Be re rustica was introduced into the Spanish 
schools as a text-book, and thus a real course of agriculture was com- 
bined with instruction in grammar, rhetoric, and law. During the 
reigns of the later emperors these studies assumed more and more a 
cyclopedic character, of which the work of the elder Pliny is a striking 
example; the same, but in another direction, may be said also of the 
Institutiones of Quintilian. At this time shorter text-books, epito- 
mized from larger works, were introduced. 

The social change had also produced new wants ; attention was dis- 
persed over a large number of subjects ; a certain variety of knowl- 
edge, even though superficial, had become a necessity for an educated 
man, and, as is always the case in nations that have passed their 
meridian height, and are approaching a state of dissolution, mere book- 
learning was esteemed more highly than true genius. 

INTOLERANCE OF THE SPANISH CHURCH. 

The introduction of Christianity did not bear any fruit till the down- 
fall of the Eomau empire. Even during the early ages the Spanish 
Church had her martyrs, for scarcely did she feel herself master in her 
dominion when in her annals we find an act of intolerance : the behead- 
ing of Priscillian, the heretic, A. D. 385, at the instigation of the 
bishops Ithacus and Idacus. It must, however, be mentioned in honor 
of the Spanish clergy at that time that this act produced the greatest 
indignation against the two bishops. The Spanish clergy were not as 
yet animated by the sanguinary religious zeal which in later centuries 
became one of their characteristics. 



13 

EEIGNS OF THE FIRST GOTHIC KINGS. 

]S"ew trials were in store for the Spanisli Church during the reigus of 
the first Gothic kiugs, who were Arians. But when the period of forced 
tolerance came to an end, when Leovigild and Eeccared had been con- 
verted to the orthodox Eoman Catholic faith, the Church amply indem- 
nified itself. Eoyalty in Spain, more than in any other country, had a 
religious character, and the doctrine of the " worldly arm " was there 
carried out to its fullest extent. It is but natural that all public insti- 
tutions, and the education of youth more so than any other, should have 
felt this change. 

EMINENT CHRISTIAN TEACHERS. 

The early Spanish Christians had several eminent teachers and edu- 
cators. Eeligious poetry was also in high favor among them, and men 
like Juvencus, Eufus, Festus, Aquilius Severus, and, above all, Pruden- 
tius, the opponent of S^^mmachus, deserve to be mentioned. As histo- 
rian Orosius distinguished himself. How far already do we seem to be 
from the century of a Lucan, a Seneca, a Quintilian ! But the darkness 
was to become still more dense. 

INVASIONS BY THE VANDALS, SUEVIANS, AND GOTHS. 

Effeminated by a long i^eriod of peace, the Spaniards wel;^ not able to 
defend themselves against the Vandals, who invaded the peninsula and 
cruelly devastated it for two years. They were followed by the Suevi- 
ans, who finished the work of devastation. Many cities were entirely 
destroyed, and their inhabitants cruelly murdered. Spain had scarcely 
begun to recover, when the Visigoths made their appearance, just as 
warlike, but, fortunately, less savage than their predecessors. It is true 
that they likewise murdered and devastated, but they built up again, 
and their social institutions were far superior to those of the other 
invading nations. 

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE GOTHS AND THE SPANIARDS. 

As long as the Goths remained Arians there existed a broad gulf be- 
tween the conquerors and the conquered. Beside this they were entirely 
different in natural disposition, language, historical traditions, and even 
in dress. The Spaniards, of middle size, with bronzed faces and black 
eyes, formed a striking contrast to the sons of the north with their tall, 
powerful figures, blue eyes, and light complexion. The former spoke 
Latin, wore the toga, and had their hair cut short ; the latter spoke the 
language of Ulfilas, wore furs, and would have considered themselves 
dishonored if their heads had been deprived of any hair. The Spaniards 
had the law of Theodosius; the Goths had no written laws whatever, 
and hence considered skill in arms the only desirable object, while the 
Spaniards had an appreciation of arts and sciences. The irresistible 



14 

power of mental superiority was so great that the Gothic kings soon 
discorered that in the appointments to important official positions they 
would have to look chiefl}- to the Eomans if their social fabric was to 
rest on any secure foundations. The real ahDalgamation of the races, 
however, did not begin till religious faith no longer formed a dividing 
line, and w hen the Visigothic law, at last written and codified and sup- 
plemented from the Theodosian code and the canons of the national 
council, could be introduced among the whole nation. 

Guizot has made the remark that the legislation of the Visigoths, in 
contradistinction to those of other barbarous nations, was "real" and 
not " personal ;" i. e., based on the landed estate and not on the nation- 
ality of those who were made subject to it. In the introduction of this 
civilizing principle of the equality of men before the law, he justly 
sees the influence of the "philosophers of those ages," viz, the clergy. 
The revival of civilization in Spain was largely due to the predominance 
of the theocratic priciple. This ascendency of mental and moral over 
mere brute force was certainly beneficial, but it had also its dark side. 
The kings, guided by the clergy, introduced numerous measures tend- 
ing to mental progress and to milder customs, with one exception : 
religious intolerance "was legally sanctified and raised to the blindest 
fanaticism ; and the fact cannot be denied that this traditionary policy, 
■which has been followed during all the successive governments, and 
■which, even ?it the present day, has not yet been entirely rooted out, has 
been the chief cause of the political decline and the misfortunes of Spain. 

INTOLERANCE TOWAED THE JEWS. 

The inexorable rigorof the inquitsition in later years was foreshadowed 
by the cruelty with which the Visigothic laws treated the Jews, and 
in the persecutions which King Sisebut, an otherwise moderate man, 
instituted against this unfortunate race. The cruelties practiced were 
so great that the Council of Toledo condemned them, but without mak- 
ing any redress. The consequence was that many Jews emigrated, and 
the temper of those who remained became so embittered that they 
openly assisted the Moors in their invasion of Andalusia. 

EDUCATION DURING THE SEVENTH CENTURY. 

It can easily be imagined that the troubles of the fifth centur}-, and 
the'invasion of the Goths, dealt a deadly blow to education ; the clergy 
alone kept its lamp burning in the midst of the dense darkness. 
Three names especially deserve to be mentioned, the three brothers Le- 
ander, Fulgentius, and Isidorus, of Sevilla, in the seventh century; all 
three, well versed in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin literature. Isidorus 
wrote a work entitled the Utymologicon, {Origiaum, sive Ufymologiarum, 
Vibri XX,) a real cyclopedia of useful knowledge. This work, left un- 
finished by him, was completed by Bishop Braulio, of Saragossa, and 



15 

was used as a text-book till the twelfth century. The table of couteuts 
will give some idea of the work : Book 1. Grammar and history. 2. 
Ehetoric and dialectics. 3. Arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and 
music. 4. Medicine. 5. Law. C. Book-copyists and clerical offices. 
7. Of God. 8. Of the church and synagogue, heresies, schisms, sor- 
cerers, and heathen. 9. Of languages. 10. Etymologies, alphabetically 
arranged. 11. Of man. 12, Of animals. 13 and 14. Of the world and 
the universe. 15. Of towns, houses, and landed estates. 16. Of metals,, 
stones, weights, and measures. 17. Of agriculture and horticulture. 
18. War and games. 19. Architecture, naval affairs, clothing. 20. 
Food and various household utensils. ' 

Bishop Braulio studied natural history, but his work on this subject 
only shows how low the schools of those days had sunk. It cannot be 
denied that the clergy were intent on saving the threatened civilization. 
But their aim was exclasively a religious one, and science had in their 
opinion only value in so far as it served as an aid for the studies of the 
clergy. The chief object was to influence the barbarians so far as to 
accept the civilizing doctrines of Christianity, and in order to further 
this end a more orderly state of society had to be organized, and the 
Church, at that time the onlj^ keeper and guardian of science, could only 
appreciate that social condition in which sJie was to be all-powerful. 
Her natural aim was to insure the complete victory of spirit over matter. 
She alone was able to pave the way for this victory, and she was con- 
scious of this. Hence her care for the education of a spiritual army, and 
the resolution of the Second Council of Toledo, according to which, 
those young men, who by their parents were destined for the Church, 
were confided to the care of priests located in those cities where bishops 
had their seats. But all this did not constitute a proper school. In 
order to become a priest or bishop, it was not necessary to have a.uj 
general education ; all that was required was to be acquainted with the 
Holy Scriptures, the rules of discipline, and the ceremonies of divine 
worship. If any of the scholars showed special talents, the bishops 
endeavored to give Ihem a better education. With regard to the in- 
struction which, during the reign of the Visigoths, was given to the mass 
of the children, history is silent; it is, however, supposed that there ex- 
isted a course in catechism for them, because a decree of the Council 
of Toledo, of the year 694, ordered the children of Jews,, when they had 
reached the age of seven years, to be taken from their parents in order 
that they might be instructed in the Christian religion. 

Gradually the Gothic kings had begun to take pleasure in mental im- 
provement; they commenced to protect and favor authors, had rare 
manuscripts copied, and increased their libraries considerably; but the 
sudden invasion of the jMoors brought all their jilans to a premature end, 
and on the ruins of the Gothic kingdom founded an empire which, as 
soon as it was firmly established, took a pride beyond all else in further- 
ing science, art, and literature, on a new and totally different basis. 



16 

TIIi: INVASION OF THE MOORS. 
• 

In direct opposition to the Germanic nations, the Moors were prompted 
to their conquering expeditions by religious zeal. Instead of allowing 
themselves to be converted by the conquered people, they advanced 
everywhere, " the sword in one hand and the Koran in the other;" they 
vere, however, conscious of the fact that violent measures, in matters of 
conscience, would be fraught with danger for their empire. Thus the 
Christians were permitted to live undisturbed at Cordova, and could 
freely worship according to their religion, with the only condition that 
they would show respect to Mohammedanism. The church- and con- 
vent-schools were not closed, but public offices were given to Moham- 
medans exclusively; intermarriage between Christians and Mohammed- 
ans were formed, and the marked advantage and benefits accruing to 
renegades quietly spread Mohammed's doctrines wherever the Moorish 
empire extended. The treatment of the Jews was as mild as that of 
the Christians. In order to establish their empire more firmly the 
Moors chiefly relied on their own mental superiority and on that 
material welfare which they brought to every country they conquered. 
Already in their eastern home they had become acquainted with the 
writings of the Greeks, and although many of these writings had be- 
come tabooed as dangerous to the religious belief of the faithful, Aris- 
totle, Theophrastus, Euclid, Ptolemffius, and Hippocrates were well 
known in Damascus and Bagdad. When Cordova had become the cen- 
ter of an. independent empire, it became heir to the rich mental heri- 
tage of the above-mentioned eastern capital, which, after the glorious 
reigns of Harun-al-Eashid and Almamun, (7G2-833,) soon began to de- 
cline and became a prey to effeminate and demoralizing luxury. 

THE EEIGN OF HASHEM I. 

The second caliph of the Moorish empire in Spain, Hashem 1, the 
contemporary of Harun, initiated the age of modern mental develop- 
ment. He protected men of learning, and founded schools to which 
Christians were admitted and were taught Arabic, a measure which 
tended largely to bring the two nations into closer contact. 

THE REIGN OF ABDERRAHMAN II. 

Abderrahmau II. continued the work of his predecessor. The schools, 
in a large number of cities, were liberally endowed from the government 
treasury ; three hundred orphans were boarded and educated, free, in 
the school connected with the great mosque at Cordova. The caliph 
was an enthusiastic admirer of poetry, and his own impromptu poems 
were highly praised. He was very fond of music, and, by the most lib- 
eral offers, induced the famous Persian musician, Ali-ben-Serrab, to 
<.'ome to Spain and found a school of music at Cordova. Magnificent 



17 

buildings rose everywhere, palaces, mosques, bridges, aqueducts, baths, 
and fountains ; the arrangements for watering the plain of Cordova, 
carried out on the most gigantic scale, spread fertility and happiness, 
and made the capital of Andalusia an earthly paradise. The court set 
an example of refined and elegant living, and mental enjoyments alter- 
nated with chivalrous games and festivals of every kind. 

THE REIGN OF MOHAMMED I. 

IMoliammed I., the son and successor of Abderrahman II., showed less^^ 
zeal in the cause of arts and sciences than his father. But the move- 
ment had begun and took its natural course of progress. In Cordova, 
the house of the learned Jahje-el-Laithi, who in his youth had twice 
traveled in the East, and who, by his teacher, the famous Malik-ben- 
Anes, was called " the mind of Spain," and " the wise Andalusian," was 
thronged by scholars from far and near, like the lecture-hall of a public 
university. 

THE REIGNS OF ABDERRAHMAN III. AND ALHAKEM II. 

During the reigns of Abderrahman III. (912-971) and Alhakem II. 
(971-97G) the Moorish empire in Spain reached its zenith of glory and 
splendor in every respect. Never before had men of learning, poets, 
and artists enjoyed such favor ; never before had larger sums been ex- 
pended for libraries and scientific collections of every kind. Abderr- 
ahman III., who was a man of the highest attainments, succeeded in in- 
spiring his whole court with his own love of knowledge. The house of 
his grand-vizier, Abu-Aamir-ben-Achmed-ben-Said, became the rendez- 
vous of all the famous men of the empire; poets there read their works, 
and important scientific questions were discussed as in our academies. 
Medicine, natural sciences, mathematics, and astronomy were the favor- 
ite studies. Alhakem II. crowned his father's work by having fine copies 
made of all the works of the best ancient and modern writers, (his 
library is said to have contained upward of 400,000 volumes,) by induc- 
ing men of learning from Spain and foreign countries to settle at Cor- 
dova, and by protecting the philosophers, who could not now pursue 
their studies in peace without fear of being murdered by religious 
fanatics. As a matter of course the schools, under such enlightened 
rulers, were in a very flourishing condition, and education of all grades 
was thoroughly organized. Abderrahman even established high-schools 
for girls. The scholars in these schools were under the care of female 
teachers, who instructed them in general knowledge and explained the 
works of the poets to them. Alhakem's care for education extended to 
all ages and to all classes of society. The primary schools were, accord- 
ing to trustworthy authorities, numerous and excellent. In Andalusia 
it was very difficult to find a person who could not read and write, while 
in Christian Europe the highest classes of society, unless they were iu 
2 E . ' 



■ 18 

the service of the Church, were utterly ignoraut in this respect. Gram- 
mar aud rhetoric were also taught in the schools. 

FREE SCHOOLS. 

Still, Alhakeui was of the opinion that education was not yet sufli- 
ciently general; he therefore established in Cordova twenty-seven 
schools, where children of indigent parents were instructed free of 
charge, and paid the teachers out of his own private treasury. The 
University of Cordova in those times was the best in the whole world. 
In the great mosque — for there the lectures were delivered — Abu-Bekr- 
ibn-Moawijah lectured on the learned questions regarding Mohammed's 
person and doctrine; Abu-Ali-Kali,fromBagdad, lectured on the ancient 
Moors. His course of lectures, which he afterward published himself 
under the title Amdli, i. e.. Dictations, contained an almost incredi- 
ble mass of the most interesting facts concerning the history of the 
ancient Moors, their proverbs, their language, and their poetry. Gram- 
mar was taught by Ibn-el-Kutiah, who was justly considered the most 
learned grammarian of Spain. Other sciences were represented by no 
less famous professors. The number of students was several thousand. 
Most of them studied what was called ^^Filili,-^ i. e., theology and law, 
for this knowledge formed the stepping-stone to the best offices in the 
government. 

THE EEIGN OF HASHEM II. 

ISTot only Cordova, but also Granada, Sevilla, Xativa, Valencia, Jaen, 
Murcia, Almeria, Malaga, Velez, in the tenth century had academies 
aud high-schools which were opened for Christians and Jews as well as 
for Mohammedans. The Jews had at the same time established special 
schools for the study of their sacred writings. The model of all these 
schools was the Jewish academy at Cordova, founded by Eabbi Mosheh, 
a native of Persia, whose fame attracted many learned men from Xorth 
Africa, and even from distant parts of Asia. Hashem II., the sou of 
Alhakem II., took the Jews under his special protection, had the Talmud 
translated into Arabic, and himself took instruction in the Mishnah, 
(the first part of the Talmud.) The exact sciences were studied with 
equal zeal by the Jews and by the Moors ; all barriers had fallen, and 
people of the most widely differing religious creeds lived peaceably 
together, united and protected by a spirit of religious tolerance almost 
unexampled in history. This state of affairs did not last long, but its 
beneficial effects could be felt amid those political storms which shook 
the throne of the caliphs to its very foundation. This was the reason 
why Hebrew learning and Hebrew literature did not reach its greatest 
height till the twelfth century, the century of Abenesra and Maimoni- 
des. But the iutiuence of religious fanaticism, which, since the usurpa- 
tion of Hadshib-Almansur began to grow strong in Spain, was so great, 



19 

that the writiugs of Maiinonides, who otherwise in his views showed 
himself far ahead of his time, are full of the most bitter hatred against 
air persons of dififerent religious faith from his own. Almausur, toward 
the end of the tenth century, initiated the period of reaction, by pub- 
licly burning all the literary treasures which Alhakem had collected, 
with the exception of the theological, grammatical, and medical works. 
Philosophy was the special object of persecution, but, as Eenan truly 
remarks, '* all the efforts to suppress it only gave it new life." The 
golden age of Alhakem has left no famous names to posterity, but the 
names of men like Avempace, Abubacer, Avenzoar, and Averroes, who 
were hunted down by religious maniacs, are inscribed in letters of gold 
on the true roll of human fame. 

THE REIGN OF HADSHIB. 

It is but just to say that the intolerance of Hadshib was chiefly caused 
by a desire to gain the popular favor, in order to maintain himself on 
his usurped throne. Personally he esteemed men of learning, and his- 
torians tell ns that in times of peace his palace resembled an academy. 
He took pleasure in visiting schools and academies, took a seat among 
the scholars, and did not allow the lesson to be interrupted by his ap- 
pearance. He generously rewarded the zeal of scholars and teachers, 
and took great care only to have the best and most learned men appoint- 
ed as priests and judges. But the civil wars and the conflict with the 
Christians, which broke out at his death, paralyzed all those efforts for 
education of which he had been the last promoter. Even as late as 
the twelfth century Arabic and Jewish science had some famous repre- 
sentatives, but the blight of religious intolerance killed most of its fruits, 
and the Christian nations were destined to mature the seed of ancient 
learning. It seems to have been the historic mission of Mohammedan- 
ism to preserve the rich inheritance of antiquity through the Dark Ages,* 
and to transmit it safely to Christian civilization. 

GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE MOORISH PERIOD. 

The genius of the Moorish nation showed itself on fehe one hand in its 
most brilliant colors in poems and romances, in a play of fancy, and in 
proverbs which contained their code of social morality, and on the 
other hand in natural sciences, especially chemistry and botany, and in 
algebra, astronomy, and medicine. It may suffice to mention in this 
place, that Jews from Cordova carried the science of Avicenua beyond 
the Pyrenees, and became the principal founders of the famous school of 
Montpellier. The predominating characteristic of the Moorish scholars 
consisted in an extreme subtilty, which, applied to religious questions, 
showed itself iu all manner of caviling discussions, particularly after 
the writings of Aristotle had made them acquainted with the strictly 
formal method and with a system of metaphysics which exactly suited 



20 

their minds. Thus they prepared the way for scholasticism, and, having 
themselves become slaves to an immovable formalism, set a dangerous 
example to their Christian neighbors. Their influence in this respect 
has been felt far beyond the Spanish peninsula, and it has cost a long 
struggle for many of the Christian nations to free themselves from this 
Influence. Science and life were with them two entirely and strictly 
separate spheres, and the last cause of their irremediable mental barren- 
ness was the fact that, in their religion, and even in their purely lyric 
poetry, there was wanting that vivifying breath of the spirit which 
forms the true essence and strength of Christianity, that deep longing 
for harmony between heaven and earth, between faith and science, 
which has been the great motor of the Christian nations, and which has 
finally freed them from the heavy bonds of the Middle- Ages. The Moors, 
too, have had their middle-ages, but after those had passed they again 
sank down to the same level as in the times of Mohammed. 

MOORISH VIEW OF EDUCATION. 

The best idea of their educational views may be gained from the Pro- 
verhs of Meidani, which treat of filial affection, obedience, the advan- 
tages of silence, the value of experience, &c. Only one proverb praises 
woman : "A virtuous woman leads to all that is great." The reverse, 
however, follows immediately: "Women are the devil's fishing-nets.^ 
But if one looks for actual educational theories, very little is found 
in the whole of Moorish literature, with the exception of the famous 
philosophical novel by Ibn-Tofail, of Wadi-Jash, (Guadiz,) entitled 
Cliai ihn JaMhdn, i. c, "The living one, the son of the waking one," 
which, though not quite justly, has been compared to Eousseau's Umile 
and to Defoe's Bohinson Crusoe. A better comparison would be with 
Bonnet's Essai analytique sur lesfacultcs de Vame. The author describes 
•the different grades of mental development in a man who has been en- 
tirely isolated from human society, but who, through the exertions of 
his own mind, and through the force of his own reasoning, obtains the 
knowledge of the mysteries of nature and the highest metaphysical 
speculations. It is like a dim dawn of the psychological method which, 
in modern times, has been applied to education, but it is by no means a 
system of education. 

THE MOORISH SCHOOLS. 

The elementary schools were connected with the mosques. In these 
schools reading, writing, and grammar were taught, ancient and mod- 
ern poems were read, and the Koran was learned by heart. The 
course of instruction in the academies embraced theology, law, natural 
sciences, and medicine. In the beginning any one who pleased acted 
as professor ; tbe lectures were open to all, and free of charge ; only 
some teachers received pay from their scholars, and this was entirely 



21 

optional. But in course of time the governmeut took the matter ia 
hand, and appointed the teachers and professors. 

THE CHRISTIANS DURING THE MOORISH PERIOD. 

During the whole Moorish period the Spanish patriots, few in number, 
but possessed of indomitable courage, carried on an unceasing warfare 
against the foreign invaders, and gradually succeeded in establishing 
Christian kingdoms in the northern part of the peninsula. It was as 
glorious a struggle as any we read of in history, an heroic war whose 
Iliad is the Bomancero. " To fight and to sing," these two words con- 
tain the whole history of Christian Spain during the Middle Ages, and 
its representative is the Cid Euy Diaz de Vivar, el Cid Campeador. 
This state of affairs was not congenial to the cultivation of the arts and 
sciences, and the Christian portion of Spain for a long time remained as 
ignorant as it was heroic. The children, with the exception of those 
who were shut up in convents, were almost exclusively instructed in 
the use of arms. The constantly recurring necessity of defending 
the frontiers prevented the establishment of a settled central govern- 
ment. iSTowhere in Europe was in those times the personal freedom of 
the lower orders and local privileges as great as in Spain. On the other 
hand, there were frequent infringements on the liberties of the people 
by the arrogant nobility, causing internal dissensions, and even at times 
leading to alliances with the Moors, who, since the death of Almansur, 
were divided into numerous opposing factions. The only places of 
refuge open to science were the convents, w^hose inmates took no part 
in the wars, but many of these, founded by superstition, had become 
nurseries of indolence, effeminacy, and immorality. 

EDUCATION IN THE TENTH CENTURY. 

In the tenth century we find only one man of learning worthy of notice, 
Haiton, bishop of Vich or Ossuna, the mathematical instructor of the 
famous Gerbert, (afterward Pope Sylvester II.,) who, it is said, introduced 
the use of Arabic figures into France. Very gradually, however, in pro- 
portion as the Christians gained upon the Moors, the greater public se- 
curity allowed men of science to follow its pursuit more undisturbedly, 
Several causes concurred in furthering this movement: The growing 
fame of scholastic philosophy in the convents ; the constantly increas- 
ing fame of the Paris University, whither large numbers of eager students 
came from all parts of Spain, as well as from Britain, to enter the ranks 
of the realists and nominalists, always ready for the fray; the great 
importance attributed to the Moorish commentaries of Aristotle, and 
their varied scientific works; the constant intercourse by letter kept up 
between the graduates of the Paris University who had returned to their 
homes ; and finally the establishment of the Dominican order, which in 
a short time spread throughout the greater portion of Western Europe, 



22 

and which became a nursery of learned theologians and valiant knights 
of the spirit. The founder of the order was himself a Spaniard, born in 
Calahorra, 1170, from the noble family at Guzman, who had spent nine 
years at the famous school of Paleneia, at that time the first in Castile. 
The dawn of a new era had begun, but the circumstance which more 
than any other tended toward a revival of learning in Spain was the 
transfer of the school of Paleneia to Salamanca. 

FOUNDATION OF THE rNlVEESITY OF SALA3IANCA. 

The first foundation of the University of Salamanca dates as far back 
as the year 1200, during the reign of Alphons IX. But the transfer 
mentioned above seems, according to the most trustworthy historians, 
not to have taken place till the reign of Ferdinand III., (1295-1312.) 
The new university had in the beginning to contend with great diiScul- 
ties; it possessed great privileges, but very little money, and the pro- 
fessors had no fixed salary. In the year 1250, Alphons X. granted an 
annual sum of 2,500 maravedis,* for the professors' salaries; and still we 
find that, after a short period of splendor, the university, about 1310, had 
again sunk into insignificance ; only several years later it became a 
university of the first rank, and the rival of Paris, Oxford, and Bologna. 

THE EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS OF ALPHONS X. 

Too great praise cannot be bestowed on Alphons X. (Alouzo el Sabio,) 
for his zeal in the cause of education and science. Before his reign tbe 
professorships were almost exclusively theological, while he also estab- 
lished professorships of the sciences. Under his directions did the pro- 
fessors of Salamanca compose the^famous AlpJwnsic Tahlcs, (astronomical 
tables;) they translated the works of Avicenna, Averroes, and of the com- 
mentators of Galenus; they assisted in editing the famous collection of 
laws, well known under the title Las side j^fo'tidas, which contains an 
extremely interesting chapter on the J^sUtdios generales, (Part II., tit. 
31.) One finds there laws and regulations of the greatest wisdom, which 
partly have been adopted by the universities of other countries and have 
been retained to this dnj. At the head of the University of Salamanca 
there was a rector who remained in oflice for one year, and was usually 
a member of one of the first families of the country. The rector, after 
consulting with the academic council, consisting of all the professors, 
filled vacant professorships. The university judiciary, to which all 
graduates and students were subject, was till 1331 in the hands of the 
bishop of the diocese, who in his functions was assisted by several other 
dignitaries of the Church ; it was in the above-mentioned year trans- 
ferred to a special official, the maestfescuela. Tbe university comprised 
schools of all grades. In the escueJas maijores the course pf instruction 
embraced : Theology, ecclesiastical and civil law, mathematics, natural 

*E(luivalont-at that period to about $1-2, OHO presoiit value. 



23 

philosophy, moral philosophy, languages and rhetoric : iu the eseuelas 
mtnores : las artes y canones. grammar, and music ; in the eseuelas mini- 
mas : the elements of grammar. These schools were all located iu three 
magnificent buildings, of which two stand even now and serve the same 
purpose. Xumerous colleges rose gradually by the side of the alma 
mater, and Salamanca swarmed with monks of different orders and 
with students, all passionately fond of sharp scholastic disputatious ; 
some of the Spanish novelists have given us vivid descriptions of the 
life aud manners of these old Spanish students. Salamanca at this 
period had about teu thousand students ; at the end of the sixteenth 
century there were about six thousaud : about the middle of the eight- 
eenth century their number was one thousand, and at present it is about 
five hundred. The fame of the university was so great that at the time 
of the great schism of Aviguon. (137S-1429.) the two Popes, Urban and 
Clement, asked the advice of the learned doctors of Salamanca and will- 
ingly submitted to their decision. Columbus also submitted to them 
his great plans of discovery. As au instance of the liberal spirit pre- 
vailing at this university, it deserves to be mentioned that there the 
system of Copernicus was taught early in the beginning of the sixteenth 
century, at a time when everywhere else it was considered heretical. 
Such boldness, however, was of no long duration in a university where, 
in the conferring of degrees, the papal aud royal authorities had equal 
influence. Xowhere was so much time lost in barren discussions, and 
nowhere was the art of distilling abstract ideas, without leaving a cer- 
tain narrow circle, so well understood as at Salamanca. Duraudus aud 
Scotus were the beginning aud the end of all philosophy, and innumerable 
theologians aud priests argued in a noisy manner, without finding any 
admirers but their own teachers. In the time of Charles V., we find a 
few names of note like Covarrubias and De Soto, but after these noth- 
ing but hopeless mediocrity. There was, however, no lack of Spaniards 
who were true disciples of science, and from the thirteenth century we 
find them at many Italian universities : the famous Cardinal Carillo de 
Albornoz, iu the year 13G5, founded for them at Bologna the College of 
San Clemeute, which has been in existence till our days. This mutual 
relation between Spain aud Italy proved very beneficial to both coun- 
tries. As an instance we may mention the famous humanist Antonio 
de Lebrixa. iXebrissensis.) who was educated in Bologna, was professor 
of the Latin language in Salamanca for twenty years, and gave to his 
native country its first dictionary aud grammar. 

ESTABLISITMEXT OF NEW ACADEMIES A>"D UNIVERSITIES. 

It would lead us too far to enumerate here all the academies aud high 
schools which were established iu Spain till the end of the Middle-Ages. 
There is one fact, however, regarding Catalonia, which is of interest. 
Jaime II., the founder of the University of Lerida. (Ilerdeusis.) in vaiu 
issued decrees forbidding the other cities of his ilomiuious to establish 



24 

superior institutions of learning ; the force of circumstances comi^elled 
him to make one concession after the other. In Valencia the city au- 
thorities founded a university in spite of the most violent resistance of 
the bishop. The same object was accomplished in Barcelona, in 1450. 
But this spirit of emulation bore scarcely any fruit ; and it may be said 
that Spain was never so near its mental decadence tlian just at the time 
when it seemed to have reached the very pinnacle of power, and when it 
was literally true that the sun never set in the empire of Charles V. 

THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. — THE INQUI- 
SITION AND THE JESUITS. 

The discovery of America, the establishment of the inquisition, the 
expulsion of the Jews, and more than all this, the foundation of the 
order of the Jesuits, created for Spain a very peculiar position, which 
formed a very striking contrast to that of all the other civilized nations 
of Europe at that period. Gold and silver in unheard-of quantities 
flowed into the imblic treasury from the American mines; the conse- 
quence was a more and more despotic system of government, as the 
kings were no longer obliged to call the Cortes together in order to 
raise money. The immense increase of private wealth only tended to 
increase the natural indolence of the Spaniards. People went to the 
Indies ( America ) in order quickly to grow rich, the resources of the 
mother-country were neglected, and the great mass of the people 
plunged wildly into luxury and immorality. At no time was education 
so much neglected. Young people left to themselves from the fifteenth 
or sixteenth year of age, lived in a state of complete idleness and 
even boasted of their extravagance. This is one of the causes of the 
depopulation of the kingdom. No less baneful was the influence of the 
inquisition. The Moors and Jews took their science and their industry 
with them into their banishment, and in bigoted and indolent Spain 
there remained only persecuting monks and priests, brutal soldiers, ad- 
venturers, and beggars. Cardinal Ximenes made great exertions to 
revive a scientific spirit by founding the University of Alcala, (Comjilu- 
tensis.) in the year 1504, the foundation of whose fame was laid at once 
by the edition of the famous polyglot Bible, and which, during the second 
half of the sixteenth century, when Cervantes studied there, shone 
with greater splendor than all the other Spanish universities. But 
outside of the sjioradic works of a small number of learned men, and 
perhaj)s five or six great poets and prose-writers, Spain, which once pos- 
sessed all the requirements to become the first nation of the world, 
gradually sank down to the very lowest grade on the scale of European 
civilization. "What sphere could be found for liberty of thought and 
noble aims in a country where rtMfos-r7o-/t' were great national festivals ? 
Those who aimed at something higher and better studied in Italy, and 
frequently remained there. The victories and the policy of Charles Y. 
had here likewise established the Spanish supremacy, but the sun of 



25 

science and art continued to shine in Italy with incomparable splendor, 
and the inquisition never took such deep root there as on the Spanish pen- 
insula. The Dominicans and the universities did, in the beginning, by no 
means look favorably on the establishment of Jesuit colleges in the chief 
cities of the kingdom. Charles V. never trusted the Jesuits, and Philip II. 
said, " The only order which I do not understand is the order of the 
Jesuits ;" but in spite of this they pursued their aims with patience and 
perseverance. Before fifty years had passed they were masters of the 
situation, through the intimate bond connecting them directly with the 
Eoman pontiff, by the principle of passive obedience {perinde ac cada- 
ver) laid down in their constitution, and by the influence which, through 
preaching, confession, and the education of youth, they had obtained over 
all classes of society. It must be granted that with regard to education 
they possess real merits ; they improved the method of instruction in the 
classic languages, and their i)rudent discipline did not fail to exercise a 
salutary reaction against the growing licentiousness. These results, how- 
ever, were more external and seeming than lasting and real. The 
casuistry in Mariana's book De rege, (written for the instruction 
of the crown-prince;) the subtilties of Sanchez, Escobar, and Cara- 
muel, cannot easily be reconciled with the spirit of the Gospel. Es- 
pecially in Spain and in South America have the doctrines of the 
Jesuits, as applied to education, paralyzed liberal thought. The Jesuits 
let the inquisition exterminate the heretics with fire and sword, while 
they themselves carried on the warfare with the arms of dialectics and 
science. After having become reconciled to the Santo Officio they took 
possession of all the schools, and finally also of the universities. The 
inquisition prohibited all suspicious books, and the Jesuits confined free 
thought in constantly narrowing circles. Absolute ignorance held full 
sway in i>hilosophy, history, the exact sciences, and in the mechanical 
arts. Since the middle of the sixteenth century there were in Spain no 
more engineers, the art of printing declined, and the gold of both the 
Indies went to foreign countries without any benefit to the mother- 
country. The Jesuit colleges were not wanting in admirable arrange- 
ments, but the rations of knowledge, so to speak, were measured out to 
the pupils in accordance with the aims pursued by the order. The study 
of grammar and rhetoric was flourishing ; Latin odes and elegies were 
composed by the pupils, the logic of Aristotle was explained, and much 
time was devoted to argue trivial questions in a skillful manner, but 
everything was superficial and without real benefit. The ideal aimed at 
was a complete Jesuit, not a man in the full sense of the word. In Par- 
aguay the experiment was carried out fully. 

fa:mous scholars of the sixteenth century. 

The indirect influence of some scholars of this period contributed a 
little to the further development of science, if not to the general educa- 
tion of the people. Among those who deserve special mention there is 



26 

Juan Luiz Vives, a somewhat dry but very learned writer, worthy of 
being placed by the side of Erasmus and Budneus. His books, Be ra- 
tlone studii imerilis, Be tradendis disci2)Unis, Be causis corruptarum ar- 
tium, deserve a place in everj- history of education, but they were not 
written in Spain. The grammarian F. Sanchez, (Sanctius,) who iu his 
native country was called el doctor de todos los Jiomhres de letras, and el 
padre de la lengna laUna, during the reign of Philip II. wrote an admirable 
work, 2linerva, sive de causis linguce latinw, which formed the basis of 
the 2Ietliode latlne of the humanists of Port Eoyal. Another important 
work was the Examen de los Ingenlos para las ciencias, written by Huarte 
in 15S0 ; and, finally, we cannot pass over in silence the works of Pedro 
de Ponce, who was the first inventor of a method of instruction for the 
deaf and dumb. But all these are only isolated examples, and in pass- 
ing from the sixteenth to the seventeenth century we see nothing but 
the most deplorable decline of science. In order to find a revival of 
scientific studies we must go as far as the accession of the Bourbons to 
the throne of Spain. 

A'J'TE3IPT AT EDUCATIONAL REF0R:\I BY SOION ABRIL. 

A Spanish journalist, M. J. 31. Guardia, living in France, has, some 
years ago, brought to light a remarkable memorial on the reform of ed- 
ucation, which Dr. Pedro Simon Abril, professor of the Greek language 
at the University of Saragossa, in the year 1589 addressed to Philip II. 
It was a bold step of the worthy doctor, but by addressing himself di- 
rectly to the king he showed his wisdom, for this was the surest way of 
quieting clerical censure. He obtained nothing by it, but his is the honor 
of having attempted a reform ; and his memorial is of great historical 
interest, for in bringing forward his thoughts of reform he points out 
the weak sides of the system, and gives us a striking picture of the 
Spanish schools under the rule of the blindest despotism. The govern- 
ment sent from time to time official inspectors, whose duty it was to cor- 
rect abuses which might have crept in in course of time. But, as Dr. 
Abril says, they did not busy themselves with educational questions, 
and examined only the food and clothing of the scholars. Simon Abril 
insists on the necessity of paying attention to the method of instruction, 
and compares the old and new methods. He urgently demands that 
teachers should no longer use the Latin language in giving instruction; 
he complains of the vagueness of the subjects assigned to the different 
professors ; of the impatience of the students, who in their haste to ob- 
tain degrees acquire a very superficial knowledge, and do not take the 
time and trouble to study the great authors of antiquity ; the reform of 
the whole system of education ought to be delayed no longer. He says, 
" Let us begin with the beginning ; why is not the grammar of our 
mother-tongue taught in the smaller (primary) schools, and why are our 
grammars written in Latin ; why are meaningless rules learned by heart 
instead of storing the child's mind with useful moral axioms, as was the 



27 

custom in former times, when the rules were learned by studying various 
authors ; why these endless translations into a foreign language instead 
of translations from foreign languages F' He is also dissatisfied with 
instruction in logic, and with regard to this he says : " Logic in itself is 
of no value ; it is only valuable by the use which is made of it ; it is a 
tool to work with, and no more ; people break their heads with discus- 
sions on abstruse metaphysical and theological questions, while it would 
be by far iDreferable to choose questions from the positive sciences, (las 
ciencias de cosas.) And rhetoric is taught in a foreign language, while 
the only chance for using it to advantage is in the mother-tongue. Math- 
ematics are almost entirely neglected, to the great disadvantage of the 
country, and the little that is taught is taught in Latin. There is no 
professorship of agriculture, architecture, the military sciences ; but 
there are a large number of professorships for vain sophistries; moral 
philosophy is only taught by name. In medicine anatomy is studied but 
little, and there is no professorship for materia medica ; the case has 
happened that a physician killed his patient because he mistook clialyhs 
for chalk."' In civil law people scarcely understood the terms of the law, 
and the commentators preferred the most barbarous Latin to Spanish. 
Eoman law is of undisputed value, but it would seem a better policy to 
pay more attention to the law of the Spanish kingdom. The study of 
theology had entirely degenerated ; instead of explaining the patristic 
writings, the vague and dreamy works of some modern authors were 
read. '• What has become of the analytical method of Aristotle and 
Euclid V he exclaims. " Do the students of theology know the Old and 
the Xew Testament ? Are the future preachers made acquainted with 
the speeches of the great pulpit orators V Simon Abril, however, is 
shrewd enough to add that he was ready to retract anything in his me- 
morial which would not meet with the approval of the Holy Church. 
It was, indeed, dangerous to speak with so much freedom. 

STATE OF EDUCATION DUEIXG THE FIE ST HALF OF THE EIGHTEEN^TH 

CEN'TUFwY. 

Philip \. (ITbl-lTJLG) was much grieved at the mental decadence of his 
country, which, during the period of the war of the Spanish succession, 
was a great deal worse than during the time of Simon Abril. Following 
the example of his grandfather, Louis XIY., he considered it one of the 
first duties of a king to protect arts and sciences. In 1713 he founded the 
Koyal Academy at Madrid, whose chief duty it was to purify the Castil- 
ian language, which, through bad taste and ignorance, had become de- 
teriorated, and in 1738 he established the Academy of History, whose 
works even now enjoy a well-merited reputation. From his reign there 
dates the establishment of the Medical Society at Seville, of the Acad- 
emy of Science at Barcelona, the Academy of History and Geography 
at Yalladolid, and the Academy of Mathematics at Granada. Ferdi- 
nand \l. (1710-1759) founded and endowed several universities. A real 



28 

reform of public instruction, however, was made by Charles III., (1759- 
1788 ;) and it was high time, for the wretched condition of affairs at this 
period beggars description. The text-books and methods of instruction 
were still the same as in the age of Ximeues; scholasticism ruled 
supreme, the Coperuican system was looked upon with suspicion, and 
Bacon was not even known by name. The professorship of mathe- 
matics at the University of Salamanca had been vacant for one hundred 
and thirty years, when Diego de Torres was called to fill it. This was 
the same Torres who, after having studied at Salamanca for five 
years, with regard to a dissertation of Pedro Clavijo, De sphwm, wrote 
the following words : " I believe this was the first intimation I re- 
ceived that there was such a thing as mathematics." But few Span- 
iards during the first half of the eighteenth century were enlight- 
ened enough not to believe in astrology. When Charles III. requested 
the University of Salamanca to give up its old prejudices, and to insti- 
tute lectures on mathematics and natural sciences, the first answer the 
faculty gave was, " that ISTewton taught nothing from which logicians 
and metaphysicians could learn anything, and that the doctrines of 
Descartes and Gassendi did not agree as well with Divine truth as re- 
vealed in the Scriptures as those of Aristotle." In a report made to the 
king- by the minister of state, Marques de Euseiiada, we read: "In the 
whole kingdom there is not a single professorship of law, of natural 
sciences, of anatomy, and of botany. We have no good map of Spain 
and its provinces, and no man who could draw such a map, and we are 
obliged to use the very irai^erfect maps of Spain which we receive from 
the ISTetherlands and froui France, so that we, to our great disgrace, do 
not know the right location and true distance of our own cities." 

STATE OF EDUCATION DURING THE SECOND HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH 

CENTURY. 

The monk Benito Feyoo had had the courage to protest loudly against 
the prevailing ignorance in his work, Teatro critico universal 6 discnrsos 
varios en todo genero de onaterias, i^ara desengano de errores comuneS} 
published in 1726, and he may justly be called the forerunner of all the 
reforms of Charles III. This king, with the assistance of wise and en- 
ergetic ministers, boldly laid the as to the rotten tree. He commenced 
by limiting the power of the inquisition ; he decreed that the authors of 
works which had been placed on the Index by the Pope, should be per- 
mitted to defend themselves i^ublicly before the authorities ; that no 
papal bull should be valid in Spain if not approved by the king ; and 
finally, to crown his work, he banished the Jesuits without consulting 
the Pope. The universities of Salamanca, Alcala, Granada, and Valen- 
cia were reconstructed on an entirely new basis ; the monks were directed 
to apply themselves to study, and various societies for the advancement 
of education were encouraged and assisted ; and in the towns and 
villages higher and lower schools were opened. Spain felt the beneficial 



29 

result of the reforms materially and morally ; the hopes and expecta- 
tions which vrere entertained with regard to the successor of Charles III., 
Charles IV., (1788-1808,) were, however, not realized. T, Fritz, in his 
work, Esqiiisse d'un cours complet cf education et cV instruction, Strasbourg, 
18J:3, says : " Manuel Godoy, the first minister of Charles IT., declared 
himself strongly in favor of the Pestalozzian system. A committee ap- 
pointed to examine the system, after long consultation, finally declared 
it to be excellent. It had been successfully introduced in the military 
school at Tarragona, and a school for scholars, established on the same 
plan in Madrid, continued to prosper in spite of the violent intrigues 
against it. Zealous teachers who wished to complete their pedagogical 
studies came to attend this school from all parts of the kingdom, and 
one of the king's sons was even educated according to the new methocL 
But public opinion was so strong against Godoy, that reforms under- 
taken by him were not lasting."' Documents from the first year of the 
present century show that the number of schools at that time was still 
very small ; from Easter till the end of October they were closed ; the 
Piarists had the monopoly of i)ublic instruction, and private instruction 
was in the hands of menials. In 1807 a plan of reform was drawn up^ 
in accordance with the system adopted at Salamanca, but it was never 
carried out. 

THE ^EE^^CH i>;yasion. 

The misfortunes of the following years naturally turned all thoughts 
into another direction. The treachery of Godoy, who betrayed his" 
country to Xapoleon I., the abdication of Charles IT., the French inva- 
sion, and the accession of Joseph Bonaparte to the throne of Spain, spread 
the ideas of the French revolution of 1798 throughout Spain, and awak- 
ened a strong national sentiment, but the influence of a fanatic priest- 
hood at the same time became stronger and more wide-spread than ever 
before. The liberals, nevertheless, in the assembly of the Cortes at 
Cadiz, who drew up a new constitution in 1812, gained a victory over 
the conservatives. But when Ferdinand VII. returned to Spain, (May 
1, 1811,) he refused to take the oath on the new constitution, and was 
for this loudly applauded by the ignorant masses. The monks and 
Jesuits reappeared everywhere, the least liberal movement created sus- 
picions in the heart of the despot, and a system of proscriptions com- 
menced, as bad as in the worst times of the monarchy. The welfare of 
the nation was entirely lost sight of, and civilization was thrown back 
for a century. 

THE CONSTITUTION OF 1812. 

From the following articles from the constitution of 1812, it will be 
seen what progress Spain might have made if it had been carried out 
loyally by an energetic and enlightened king. Article 366 says : " In 
all villages of the monarchy primary schools are to be established, in. 



30 

wliicli the children will be tauglit reading, writing, and arithmetic, the 
catechism of the Catholic Church, and a summary of the duties of a cit- 
izen," Article 307 : "A sufficient number of universities aud other higher 
institutions of learning is to be established to teach sciences, literature, 
and art." Article 368: " The course of instruction is to be uniform in 
all parts of the kingdom. The constitution is to be taught and explained 
at all universities and iustitutions of learning whose course embraces 
theology and law." Article 369 : "A supreme educational committee is 
to be appointed, consisting of men of acknowledged learning, and the 
inspection of primary schools is to be in the hands of this committee." 
Article 370: "The Cortes will, by special laws, regulate all the affairs 
pertaining to this highly important subject of public instruction," All 
these articles remained pious wishes. The revolution of 1820 compelled 
Ferdinand YII. to accept the constitution, the law for a reform of public 
instruction was made the order of the day, and was published June 29, 
1821, but the government did not pay any attention to this. Two years 
later the civil war broke out, and the attitude taken by the great powers 
of Europe brought about a complete triumph of the reactionary party. 

THE PERIOD OF CIVIL WAES. 

A new plan drawn up in opposition to the exertions of the Cortes in 
1824 was carried out, and up to the year 1845 no changes were made in 
it. During the lifetime of Ferdinand YII., education rapidly declined ; 
several universities were deprived of their entire property. The first 
report of the society for imblic instruction in Madrid, published in 1830, 
says: " It is scarcely credible, but nevertheless true, that, e, ry,, during 
the reign of the Calomarde ministry in 1827, the sums intended for the 
salaries of professors of Hebrew and Arabic were appropriated by the 
jv government to pay for a school of bull-fighting !" Matters became worse 
"^^ till Christine ascended the throne, (1830;) she reopened the universities, 
■'"^ and the royal ordinance of September 29, 1836, had a beneficial influence, 
increasing the schools and improving their organization. In the year 
1838, the Cortds were engaged in discussing two new plans for a reform 
of public in-structiou, the first regarding the primary schools, and the 
other the secondary and superior schools. Only the first plan was 
adopted, and primary instruction was now regulated bylaw; the sec- 
ond did not become a law, and the ordinance of 1830 remained in force. 
It was discussed once more, but bitter party-warfare and civil disturb- 
ances for a long time prevented all reforms. 

Uj^-^^-^ v^ w^vU^I- 'uEaENT HISTORY, 1815-1873. 

The " plan of studies" of September 17, 1815, promulgated in the 
beginning of the reign of Isabella II., during the military dictatorship of 
Xarvaez, who had formed a ministry composed entirely of " moderados,'^ 
for the first time embraced the schools of all grades, iformal-schools 



31 

were established in the chief cities of the proviiiees; a miuing-school 
and a school ol industrial eugiueering were likewise founded. Karvaez, 
however, only maintained his position by terrorizing the nation and by 
the discord among the leaders of the liberal party, and the following 
eleven years present a deplorable spectacle, as education was suffering 
greatl}' through the constant changes of government. The " plan of 
studies'' of 1845, being changed continually, lost its uniformity and finaliy 
fell into disuse. In 1851, a concordat with Eome was signed, whose 
second article says: "Instruction in the universities, colleges, semi- 
naries, x)ublic or private schools of every kind, must in all respects be 
regulated according to the doctrines of the holy Catholic religion. The 
bishops and clerical superintendents of dioceses are therefore empowered 
to watch over the purity of morals and the education of youth in all 
schools, public and private." In the same year the Jesuits again made 
their appearance in the province of Guipuzcoa ; their establishment was 
closed, however, in 1854, in consequence of the political crisis, which for 
two years lifted the liberal party into power. Under the influence of 
the modern Catholic reaction of 1856, on the eve of a change of ministry, 
the law of September 9, 1857, was promulgated, which in its most essential 
features has been left unchanged by all the following cabinets, even up 
to the recent proclamation of the republic. In September, 1868, a revo- 
lution broke out by which Queen Isabella was obliged to leave the coun- 
try. The monks and Jesuits were banished, the concordat with Eome 
was publicly burned on the 4th of October, 1868, and the constitution 
of June 9, 1869, made education compulsory and free of charge. 

On the 4th of December, 1870, Amadeus, son of King Victor Emanuel 
of Italy, accepted the crown of Spain, w^hich had been offered to him by 
the Cortes, but, tired of the never-ending troubles, he abdicated in Feb- 
ruary, 1873, and the republic was proclaimed in Madrid. Thus an en- 
tirely new era has commenced in the history of Spain, and it is difficult 
to foretell what the end will be and how education will be influenced by 
these sweeping political changes. The most important points of the law 
of 1857, and the modifications which have been made in it, are given 
below. 

THE EDUCATIONAL LAW OF 1857. 

The law of September 9, 1857, had during a few months been sup- 
planted by the law of June 2, 1868, the work of the most extreme abso- 
hitistic and clerical party. 

The provisional government of 1868 immediately rescinded this law 
and returned to the one of 1857, at any rate till something better was 
created, so as to take education and its supervision out of the bands of 
the clergy. Don Manuel Euiz Zorilla, minister of public instruction, in 
his two decrees of October 4 and 21, 1868, did not conceal his dissatis- 
faction with the law of 1857. He even went further : in announcing a 
speedy and thorough reform of the whole system of public instruction, 



32 

he declared that his ideal was nothing less tban the total suppression 
of all public institutions of learning, as in his opinion this sacrifice was 
the unavoidable consequence of the constitutional liberty which had 
been proclaimed. But as during the period of transition the just de- 
mands of the moment had to betaken into account, he agreed to a com- 
promise, consisting in the maintenance of the law of 1857, except in such 
articles as were utterly at variance with the principles of the present 
government. 

SUPRE]ME EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITY. 

The highest educational authority is a minister del fomeiito, (of fur- 
therance of education, public works, &c.) Accordiug to the law of 1857 
the minister was to be assisted in his functions by a " royal council of 
studies," {Real consejo de instruccion puhlica,) whose president, members, 
and secretary were to be appointed by the government. This council 
originally consisted of thirty members, but was reduced to twenty-four 
by the royal decree of October 9, 1866. There were in this council 
ministers, archbishops, bishops, councilors of state, directors of public 
instruction who had formerly been professors in some university, magis- 
trates, state attorneys, members of the royal academies, rectors of uni- 
versities who had been out of office for six years, ordinary professors of 
universities, and four places were reserved to men holding no official 
position, but distinguished by their literary or scientific activity. The 
office of councilor of studies was entirely honorary, without any emolu- 
ment whatever, and could never be held by professors in active service. 
Originally this council had five sections, which by a ministerial decree of 
June 17, 1868, were reduced to three, viz, one for primary schools, special 
schools, and schools of art ; one for secondary schools ; and one for supe- 
rior schools. 

The government was obliged to consult this council with regard to, 1, 
all changes in the existing laws; 2, the founding or discontinuing of 
schools of all grades; 3, the founding of new professorships; 4, their 
salaries and classification, the pensions of teachers, &c. ; 5, changes in 
the course of instruction; 6, choice of text-books; 7, in all other cases 
provided for by the law and regulations. The minister was also to con- 
sult this council on all doubtful questions. 

The decree of October 10, 1868, simply abolished this council, and all 
further measures have been taken under the sole responsibility of the 
minister. The council had in reality become practically useless, as edu- 
cation had been declared free in the fullest sense of the word, and as 
the clergy could no longer exercise any influence. 

PEOVINCIAL AND LOCAL EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITIES. 

At the head of the central administration there is a general director 
of public instruction, while the local administration is in the hands of 



the rectors of tlie universities, each of whom is assisted in the exercise 
of his functions by a local (university) council of education, one for each 
university district. B3' royal decree of July 17, 1857, there is to be a 
provincial council of education in the capital of each province, which is 
to watch over the progress of education in the primary and secondary 
schools, and over the proper use of the school fund. According to the 
law of September 9, 1857, this council was to consist of the governor of 
the province as president, a member of the provincial diet, a member of 
the city council, (of the capital of the province,) the school inspector of 
the province, a clergyman, proposed by the bishop of the province, and 
at least two private citizens, fathers of families. Finally there was to 
be a local (district) council of education in every district of the province, 
for the suiDervision of primary instruction, consisting of the alcalde, one 
district councilor, one clergyman of the district, and at least two 
fathers of families. This local (district) council had to report to the 
provincial council, and this to the rector of the university, who again 
reported to the central government. All these regulations were changed 
by the decree of October 11, 1868 ; henceforth the provincial coun- 
cils are to consist of nine members elected by the provincial diets 5 
the local (district) councils are to consist of fifteen members in cities of 
more than 100,000 inhabitants, in cities of fewer inhabitants, not less 
than 2,000, of nine members ; in all others of five members, who are to 
be elected by the city councils. All these measures clearly show the pre- 
vailing spirit of decentralization, while from 1815 till the revolution of 
18G8 the opp.osite principle had ruled almost exclusively. 

PRIMAKY INSTRUCTION. 

Primary instruction is divided into two grades, elementary and higher. 
The course of instruction in the elementary grade comprises the follow- 
ing subjects: Christian doctrine and sacred history, reading, writing^ 
principles of Spanish grammar, orthography, i^rinciples of arithmetic, 
with the legal system of weights, measures, and coins, rudiments of agri- 
culture, industry, and commerce, adapted to the localities. The higher 
primary grade is to embrace in addition the following subjects: princi- 
ples of geometry, linear drawing and surveying, rudiments of history and 
geography, especially of Spain, general notions of natural philosophy and 
natural history as adapted to the necessities of every-day life. In the 
girls' schools female work and domestic hygiene are substituted for the 
rudiments of agriculture, industry, and commerce. 

STATISTICS. 

There are no later statistics of primary instruction than those of 1867,, 
but for comparison's sake those of 1797 and 1850 are also given : 
X umber of public and private primary schools in 1707, 11,156. 
Number of public and private primary schools in 1859, 22,060, 
.3 E 



34 

Number of public and private primary schools iu 18G7, 20,332. 

Number of scholars iu jjublic aucl private primary schools iu 1797, 
400,376. 

Number of scholars iu public aucl private primary schools iu 1859, 
1,086,578. 

Number of scholars in public and private primary schools iu 1867, 
1,425,339. 

SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. 

The so-called secondary schools for a loug time taught uothiug but a 
little Latin and moral philosophy, but other branches of instruction 
have now beeu introduced, such as modern languages, geography, his- 
tory, mathematics, logic, chemistry, natural philosophy, gymnastics, 
fencing, music, &c. These schools are called Institutos. They are 
maintained chiefly by iirovincial and local exertion. According to 
the statistics of 1867 there were 63 secondary schools, viz, 50 proviucial 
and 13 local, with 18,903 scholars. 

NORMAL SCHOOLS. 

The law of 1857 created primary uormal-schools iu the capital of every 
X)rovince, besides a central normal-school at Madrid. The latter is sup- 
ported by the central government, and the others by the proviucial au- 
thorities. With each of these normal-schools a model- or practice-school 
is connected. The course of studies is two years for teachers of the 
lower primary grade, three years for those of the higher primary grade, 
and four years for the diploma of maestro de escuela normal The course 
of iustruction iu the central normal-school embraces the following sub- 
jects : Universal history, history of Spain, rhetoric, poetry, geography, 
grammar, pedagogics with special reference to the instruction of the 
blind and the deaf and dumb, natural philosophy, chemistry, natural 
history, industry, commerce, systems and methods of instruction, geom- 
etry, linear drawing, agriculture, religion and morals, theory and prac- 
tice of reading and writing, gymnastics. The course of instruction in 
the provincial uormal-schools is very similar. 

SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. 

Superior instruction comprises the "Faculties," (the universities,) and 
^ some special schools, which will be mentioned below. There are at 
present ten universities, which number is justly considered too large. 
These ten universities, which at the same time are the seats of the local 
(university) councils, are Madrid, (embracing the provinces of Madrid, 
Ciudad Eeal, Cuenca, Guadalajara, Segovia, and Toledo ;) Barcelona, 
(Barcelona, Gerona, Lerida, Taragona, and the Balearic Islands ;) Gra- 
nada, (Grauada, Almeria, Jaen, and Malaga;) Oviedo, (Oviedo and 
Leon ;) Salamanca, (Salamanca, Avila, Caceres, and Zamora;) Santiago, 



35 

(Coiiula, Lugo, Oieiise, and Poutevedra ;) Seville, (Seville, Badajoz, 
Cadiz, Cauaiy Islands, Cordova, Huelva ;) Valencia, (Valencia, Alba- 
cete, Alicante, Castellon, Marcia ;) Valladolid, (Valladolid, Alava, Bur- 
gos, Guipuzcoa, Viscaya ;) Saragossa, (Saragossa, Huesca, Logrofio, 
Xavarra, Soria, Teruel.) 

Every university has a rector, appointed by tbe governmeut from 
among tbe professors, (decree of October Itt, 18G8.) There is also a 
A'ice-rector, one of the i^rofessors, who takes the rector's place in case of 
absence or sickness. The reform produced by the revolution of 1868 has 
not had much influence on the universities. All that has been done was 
to revise the lecture-plan, to suppress the theological faculty, and to 
empower all universities to give the doctor degree, which privilege had 
been confined to the University of Madrid. There are three academical 
degrees: Baccalaureate, licentiate, and doctor. Each university is to 
have five faculties, viz: 1. Philosophy and Literature ; 2. Mathematical 
and ISTatural Sciences ; 3. Pharmacy ; 4. Medicine ; 5. Law. ]S"ot all 
universities, however, possess all these five faculties. In the University 
of Madrid they are all represented. With the second faculty in Madrid 
there is connected a school of mathematics, physics, and chemistry, a 
museum of natural history, and an astronomical observatory. Law 
faculties are at present found in all universities. Faculties of medicine 
are only in Madrid, GranadJi, Santiago, Seville, Valencia, and Vallado- 
lid ; and faculties of pharmacy are only found in IMadrid, Barcelona, 
and Granada. 

SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. 

Of special schools Spain j)ossesses the following : 1. The special schools 
for engineers and miners at Madrid ; 2. The schools of agriculture at 
Madrid and Aranjuez; 3. The industrial schools at Madrid and Bar- 
celona ; 4. The escuela diplomatica (school of diplomacy) at Madrid ; 5. 
The lower law-schools (for educating x)nblic notaries) at Madrid, Bar- 
celona, Granada, Oviedo, and Valladolid; 6. The academy of the fine arts 
at Madrid, the school of architecture at Madrid, the conservatory of 
music at Madrid ; 7. The schools of veterinary surgery at Madrid, (of the 
first class,) and those of the second class at Cordova, Leon, and Sara- 
gossa; 8. The navigation schools at Barcelona, Bilbao, Cadiz, Cartagena, 
Coruna, Gijon, Malaga, San Sebastian, Santander, and Santa Cruz, (on 
the island of Tenerifife;) and the schools of ship-building at Barcelona , 
Cadiz, Coruna, and Santander. 



EDUCATION IN BOLIVIA 



EDUCATION IN BOLIVIA. 



[Note. — For the following account of education in Bolivia we are indebted to the 
report of the Brazilian minister in La Paz, Bolivia, made to the Brazilian government 
in April, 1372, and kindly forwarded to this Bureau by the Brazilian minister at Wash- 
ington.] 

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS REGARDINGr EDUCATION. 

The constitution of Bolivia guarantees liberty of instruction under the 
supervision of the state ; but this principle, although acknowledged by 
the constitution of 1851, has never been carried into practical execution 
as far as superior and professional instruction is concerned, and only to 
a certain limited extent with regard to primary and secondary instruc- 
tion. The ministry of public instruction has, on different occasions, 
denied the authority for liberty of instruction in professional studies, 
thus openly defying the letter of the constitution. This difference dates 
from the university statute of November 13, 1846, dictated under the 
influence of the political constitution of 1843. 

HISTORY OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 

The history of public instruction in Bolivia presents no very flatter- 
ing picture. During the colonial period primary schools supported by 
the government were almost entirely unknown. Only in the beginning 
of this century primary schools were founded in some cities under the 
supervision of, and supported by, the respective city councils. Pri- 
mary instruction was consequently confined to some i)rivate schools of 
the most imperfect description, and to the convent-schools; as a gen- 
eral rule, reading and writing were taught in the parental home. Supe- 
rior instruction was limited to Latin and the outline of philosophy taught 
at the University of Saint Francis Xavier, established in Charcas 
almost at the same time when the Jesuits founded seminaries at Ghu- 
quisaca and La Paz, during the reign of Charles III., (1759-1788.) The 
University of Charcas was one of the most noted of the few high-schools 
that promoted civilization on the South American continent. Besides 
the above-mentioned studies, ecclesiastical and civil law were taught, 
and many men who distinguished themselves during the struggle for 
independence, such as Monteagudo and Moreno, studied at this uni- 
versity. The professors were men of acknowledged ability, and many 
of their scholars, especially among the law students, gained a great repu- 



40 

tatiou, such as Pinto and Origuela. The splendor of the University of 
Charcas disappeared with the declaration of independence. General 
Sucre (first president of Bolivia, 1825-1828) organized several colleges for 
secondary instruction in the principal cities, and promised the estab- 
lishment of primary schools in the provinces, a few of which were really 
established. In 1831 another university was founded in La Paz, intro- 
ducing a more extended amount of preparatory studies. Although not 
yet sufficient, law, medicine, and theology are included. In 1846 
another change took place in the system of public instruction. In that 
year, Frias, minister of public instruction, promulgated a new educa- 
tional statute, by which instruction of all kinds was divided in three 
grades, viz, primary, secondary, and professional, and with regard to 
the two last-mentioned introduced, though in a very imperfect manner, 
the French system of simultaneous instruction. The adoption of this 
system was, in Bolivia, considered a progress, and although many now 
deplore the numerous imperfections of this system, it is still followed 
with but few alterations. One of the chief faults of the system of sec- 
ondary instruction is, that too much time is devoted to mere literary or 
humanitarian studies, thus neglecting the more scientific studies. Thus 
the study of chemistry, natural philosophy, and natural history is 
limited to a mere nomenclature of aphorisms -, and the want of special 
schools only increases this evil. Another great complaint raised against 
the i)resent sj'stem is the want of professors, whose number is so limited 
that most of them have to teach a great number of frequently very 
heterogeneous subjects. In the year 1859, Yalle, the minister of public 
instruction, promulgated new statutes of public instruction (extending 
also to the primary schools) fashioned after the French system, thus 
X^roducing a veritable chaos in educational aifairs. From this rapid re- 
view it will be seen that education in Bolivia leaves still much to be 
desired. 

PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 

Primary instruction is given in city- and cantonal-schools, (canton : 
subdivision of the province, answering to our counties,) infant-schools, 
{casas de asylo,) and female colleges, {coUegios de educandas.) The course 
of instruction in the city-schools embraces Christian doctrine, reading, 
writing, arithmetic, Spanish geography and history; and in the cantonal 
schools, Christian doctrine, writing, reading, elements of arithmetic, 
and Spanish. The number of city- and cantonal schools are propor- 
tioned to the number of inhabitants. The teachers are appointed and 
paid by the government, whose duty it is to increase the number of 
schools wherever it is deemed necessary. In order to educate compe- 
tent primary teachers there is to be established a normal-school in the 
capital of every department, (province.) All schools are regulated by 
the law of November 13, 184G, and by the law of December 31, 1859. 
In addition, the following educational laws are in force : The law of 



41 

April 20, 1800, treatiug of tlie expenses for gratuitous instruction and 
of the conduct of the examinations; the law of August 25, 18G0, treat- 
ing of the competitive courses for teachers and of the number of 
scholars in each school ; the law of December 7, 1800, treating of the 
appointment of teachers ; and the law of July 7, 1802, regulating the 
school at Cochabaraba, conducted b}" the Sisters of Charity. The law 
of June 27, 1801, whose execution is recommended by the order of July 
20, 1864, provides in its 8th paragraph : "In villages where there is no 
state-school, the priests will, at their own expense, keep a school in 
which the elements of religion are taught and primary instruction is 
given." By decree of November 25, 1867, central schools of primary 
instruction have been established in the capitals of some of the depart- 
ments. By a circular of September 3, 1850, primary-school committees 
are appointed in the capitals of the departments, having the duty 
to supervise the schools of their departments, to establish new schools 
where it is found necessary, and to improve the existing schools. By 
a decree of December 10, 1859, the art-colleges of La Paz and Cocha- 
bamba are converted into schools for the children of workingmen. By 
a decree of September, 1861, the primary schools are divided into com- 
plete and incomplete schools. 

INFANT-SCHOOLS. 

The first infant-school was established on November 23, 1855, in the 
city of Potosi, intended to prepare young children between the ages of 
three and seven years for the primary schools. July 20, 1858, another 
was established at Sucre, and finally, August 20, 1861, a third one at 
Cochabamba ; this is the one to which the law of July 2, 1862, refers, 
intrusting it to the care of the Sisters of Charity, and assigning to it a 
house and funds. 

FEMALE COLLEGES. 

There are female colleges {collecjlos cle educandas) in the capital cities 
of the departm;3nts. The course of instruction in these institutions 
embraces reading,writing, arithmetic. Christian doctrine, Spanish gram- 
mar, universal history. Old and i^ew Testament, geometry, cosmography, 
natural philosophy, physical geography, domestic hygiene, drawing, 
music, embroiderj', cutting, and sewing. These colleges are under the 
immediate direction of a lad}^ jirincipal, and are subject to the in- 
spection of a committee composed of one member of the university- 
council, a magistrate, and a clergyman, presided over by the vice-chan- 
cellor of the university. These colleges admit both day-scholars and 
boarders, some of whom receive instruction free of charge, whose num- 
ber is fixed by the law of January 18, 1862. On November 23 such a 
college was established at Santa Cruz; in 1803 the second at Oruro; in 
1861 the third at Tarija, and in 1S66 the college at La Paz was trans- 
formed into a day-school. 



42 

SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. 

Secondary instruction is imparted in secular and ecclesiastical col- 
leges. The course of instruction in tlie former, which are government 
institutions, embraces languages, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trig- 
onometry, geography, history, elements of natural history, natural 
philosophy, religion and moral philosophy, drawing, and vocal and in- 
strumental music, (decree of October 15, 1845.) Bach college has sis 
classes, and the professors are appointed by the government after a 
competitive examination. Most of the capitals of departments possess 
such colleges, admitting also day scholars. The ecclesiastical colleges- 
or seminaries (collegios seminarios) are under the direction of the clerical 
authorities, and are regulated by special laws. Their course is very 
similar to that of the secular colleges, only giving more extensive in- 
struction in theology. Nothing, however, must be taught that is con- 
trary to the constitution or the laws of the country. By a decree of 
February 25. 1859, the archbishop of Charcas established grand or 
central ecclesiastical seminaries in the dioceses of La Paz, Cochabamba^ 
and Santa Cruz, under the direction of the respective prelates. Bolivia 
also possesses some private lyceums or secondary schools, established 
under a license from the government. 

SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. 

Bolivia has three universities, viz, Sucre, La Paz, and Cochabamba. 
The direction and inspection of schools of every grade are entirely in the 
hands of the universities. Each university has five faculties, viz : 1. 
Theology; 2. Law and political sciences; 3. Medicine; 4. Mathematical 
and physical sciences ; 5. Humanities and philosophy. The faculty of 
theology comprises dogmatics, morals, ecclesiastical law, sacred history, 
and church history, (decree of November 21, 1810.) The faculty of 
law comprises civil law of Bolivia, Koman law, as applied in Bolivia, 
elements of political economy, commercial law, judicial organization, 
criminal law, medical jurisprudence, constitutional law,, and administra- 
tive law, (decrees of November 27 and December 27, 1859, and June 
5, 1804.) The faculty of medicine comprises anatomy, physiology, 
pathology', materia medica, chemistry, pharmacy, hygiene, and clinical 
practice. The faculty of mathematical and i)hysical sciences comprises 
mathematics, natural history, chemistry, and natural philosophy. The 
faculty of humanities and philosophy comprises literature, philosophy, 
and history. The degrees conferred by the universities are, bachelor, 
licentiate, and doctor ; the medical faculty onl^^ confers the degree of 
doctor. All instruction at the universities must have for its basis: 1, 
the precepts of the holy Catholic religion ; 2, fidelity to the republic, to 
the constitution, and the principles of public order; 3, obedience to 
the statu,tes of the university. The officers of the university are : 1, 
the minister of public instruction, (the highest authorit3' ; ) '^, the chan- 



43 

cellor 5 3, the vice-cliaucellor ; 4, tlie councilors ; 5, the ordinary coun- 
cilors ; 6, the deans and professors of faculties ; 7, the presidents and 
professors of colleges ; 8, the directors and professors of private insti- 
tutions of learning licensed by the university. The university-council 
is composed of ten memberSj two of whom are inspecting councilors, 
and one chosen from among the presidents of colleges appointed for 
lifetime, [conselheros perpetuos ;) the seven others are ordinary coun- 
cilors, chosen from among the deans and professors of faculties, and 
from among the presidents and professors of colleges. The minister 
appoints these seven ordinary councilors every year. In order to be- 
come " perpetual councilor," a person must have been emi)loyed ten 
years at some college, and have served five years in the council as 
ordinary councilor. 

ACADEMIES OF FOEENSIC PRACTICE. 

These academies were created by a decree of April 23, 1850, as in- 
stitutions entirely separate from the universities, with which they had 
been connected by a decree of Xovember 15, 1855. They are attended 
by law-students, after having obtained the degree of licentiate, for two 
or more years, till they are able to present themselves for an examina- 
tion for attorney before the district courts. These academies are under 
the immediate supervision of a committee composed of several judicial 
authorities and lawyers of the district. 

ART-COLLEGES. 

By a decree of August 6, 1853, two such colleges were established in 
the republic, and by a decree of the 25th August, of the same year, in- 
struction in these colleges was declared entirely free of charge. The 
course of instruction is not given, but these colleges are a sort of indus- 
trial or technical schools. 

MINING SCHOOLS. 

By a decree of August 6, 1853, mining-schools were founded in the 
cities of Potosi and Oruro. 

LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC 3IUSEUMS. 

Public libraries were established by a decree of June 30, 1858, 
and by a decree of March 14, 1867, special libraries were established at 
the universities and the institutions of secondary instruction. All the 
public libraries are under the direction and supervision of the university- 
councils, and there is a director-in-chief of all the public libraries of the 
republic. By a decree of December 31, 1840, public museums were 
established in the capitals of every province. The most important 
of these museums are those of Potosi, founded in 184G, and of La Paz, 
founded in 1845. 



44 



AaEICULTURAL COLLEaE. 



By a law of Jiiue 12, 1S61, au agricultural college was to be estab- 
lished, wbicli was opened on the 26th October, in Cochabamba. By a 
decree of August 3, 1804, this college was, however, abolished, and the 
law of September, 1865, decreed that a general knowledge of agricul- 
ture should be imparted in the primary schools. 



EDUCATION IX URUGUAY. 



EDUCATION IN URUGUAY 



[Note. — For the following account of education in Uruguay we are indebted to the 
report of the Brazilian minister iu Montevideo, made to the Brazilian governmenf in 
March, 1872, and kindly forwarded to this Bureau by the Brazilian minister at Wash- 
ington.] 

. LEGAL PROYISIONS FOE, PrBLIC INSTRUCTION. 

As fiiv back as May 16, 1S27, the government of TJrug-nay, with laud- 
able zeal, established i)ublic elementary schools, recognizing them as one 
of the first necessities of free nations. According to a decree published 
on the above-mentioned date, a primary school, on the Lancasterian plan, 
was to be founded at the expense of the national treasury in every town, 
with a teacher employed at a salary of sixty pesos per month ; every 
child aged seven years or upward should be admitted to these schools 
free of charge. In every place where a school had been established, 
there was to be au inspecting committee, composed of a judge and two 
citizens. This committee was to inspect the schools, to watch the con- 
duct of the teacher and the affairs of the school, and finally to make a 
report to the government. 

On September 13, 1847, a decree was passed creating a new 
educational authority, to which the management and supervision of 
X)rimary instruction was intrusted. The preamble of this decree deserves 
to be given entire : " Education is the creative germ of the happiness 
and prosperity of nations, because in it dwells the knowledge which 
prodnces good institutions, and public and private virtue. The study 
of its development, its application, and its tendency is not the work of 
speculation, of individual belief, or of sectarian interests, but belongs 
exclusively to the government. Being the sole executive of the people 
whom it represents, to it alone should be confided the sacred trust of the 
dogmas and principles which form the basis of the very existence of 
society ; on it alone rests the responsibility, and it is its undeniable 
duty to take possession of the feelings, ideas, and instincts of man from 
his birth, and to mold them so as to fit him for the conditions and exi- 
gencies of the society in which he is to live. In no other way can a 
commonwealth exist, or can there be that social harmony without which 
a state possesses neither order and tranquillity nor strength and life. 
In view of all this the government has decided to devote all its energies 
to this subject, and has for the safety of the republic decreed," &c. 



48 

The duties of tliis authority, or educational council, are : 1, to promote^ 
diffuse, make uniform and systematize i)ublicaud, more especially, prim- 
ary instruction ; 2, to authorize or forbid the opening of every kind 
of educational institution ; 3, to regulate the conditions on which it is. 
to exist ; 4, "to examine the works and doctrines which are to form the 
basis of the study of moral sciences ; 5, to inspect all educational 
institutions and to correct abuses; 6, to watch studiously over the 
observance of the most perfect harmony between education and the 
political and religious beliefs which form the basis of the social fabric ; 
7, to propose to the government improvements in public instruction. 
The number of the members of this council was iised at twelve, to be 
appointed by the government, with the minister of the interior as 
president. Vacancies in the council are to be filled through election by the 
members, the vote being approved by the government. All expenses 
connected with this council are to be paid from the national treasury. 

By decree of March 13, 1848, the regulations for primary schools, public 
and private, proposed by this council, were sanctioned by the government* 
Primary instruction was divided into two grades, a lower and a higher 
one, those schools being termed " complete schools" which embraced both 
grades. The course of i nstruction in the ''lower primary schools" embraces 
the following subjects : 1, Christian doctrine and principles of morality ; 

2, reading ; 3, writing; 4, the four fundamental rules of arithmetic ; 5, 
Spanish grammar; 6, outlines of the geography of Uruguay. The 
course of instruction in the " higher primary schools" embraces : 1, the 
same studies as in the lower primary schools, only carried further f 
besides: 2, some knowledge of the privileges and duties of citizens; 

3, linear drawing and elements of geometry ; 4, cosmography and general 
geography ; 5, outlines of the history of Uruguay and its constitution. 

All public schools should, if possible, contain two grades of primary 
instruction, and be divided into two "sections. Pupils who have finished 
their studies in the upper section ought to be fully capable of entering 
some institution of secondary instruction. 

The teachers in the public schools are appointed by the educational 
council from among a number of competitors. To obtain a place as 
teacher in primary schools, both lower and higher, it is necessary, 1, to 
be not less than eighteen years of age ; 2, to produce a certificate of 
good moral character; 3, to pass a competitive examination. When all 
these conditions have been fulfilled the "council" issues a teacher's cer- 
tificate. Teachers enjoy the following privileges: 1, exemption from 
military service; 2, exemption from any and all municipal offices f 
3, exemption from any public service not connected with education. 
The following persons can never hold the office of teacher : 1, those who 
at any time have been condemned to a defamatory punishment ; 2, those 
who are under the accusation of any crime ; 3, those who have been 
declared guilty of fraudulent bankruptcy. 

Pi'ivMtc schools ituiy he ostnblislied in any ]>art of the republic, but 



49 

tlieir programme and course of instruction must previously have been 
submitted to the " educational council " for approbation, vrith the sole 
object that it may contain nothing against public morals or the consti- 
tution of the country. Pupils from private schools may be admitted to 
l^ublic schools after rendering proof, by an examination, of their having 
studied all the subjects prescribed in the public schools. jSTo private 
school can have more than eight pupils; as soon as this number is 
exceeded it is considered a public school, and is subject to the same 
regulations as the public schools. 

In no educational institution, either public or private, can any other 
liunishments be inflicted except the following : 1, repetition of the les- 
sons; 2, increased lessons ; 3, keeping in after school-hours ; 4, standing 
during school-hours ; 5, public notification of expulsion ; 6, private or 
public expulsion. The last-mentioned punishment can only be inflicted 
for very grave offenses, and only after three notifications. 

Teachers who are derelict in their duties are warned, then punished 
by fines, and finally suspended. 

In order to carry out these regulations the council appoints every three 
jnonths a committee of two from among its members to inspect every- 
school as often as is convenient, but not less than once a month. 

The schools in the other departments of the republic (outside of the 
department of Montevideo) are managed by the respective municipal 
corporations, under the direction of the "educational council." 

The inspecting committee must, at the end of every quarter, make a 
report to the "educational council" on the general state of the schools, 
the number of pupils, &c. 

Girls' schools are subject to the same laws and regulations as boys' 
schools, only that more regard is taken to the wants of females by 
teaching sewing and other female work. 

Such is the legislation regarding primary instruction in Uruguay, 
which, during the twenty-five years it has been in force, would have pro- 
duced the most beneficial results but for the constant political dis- 
turbances, which have prevented the proper carrying-out of many 
provisions of the educational law, and have kept especially the rural 
population in a state of deplorable ignorance. 

STATISTICS. 

The most recent statistics are those of 18GS ; only of the capital, 
Montevideo, and the department of that name, there are statistics of 
the year 1871. 
4 E 



50 
Educational Statistics of 18G8. 





SCHOOLS. 


SCHOLAKS. 




For 
boys. 


For 

girls. 


Total. Boys. 


Girls. 


Total. 


Montevicleo: 

free-schools supported by the municipality of the 


24 


20 


44 
25 


2,269 


2, 265 


4 534 




240 




13 


12 


1, 372 


667 


2 039 


Chilclren educated in schools having no government 


■ 1 "00 


















71 






8,013 





















13 
11 

8 
7 
6 
6 
6 
6 
5 
8 
4 
3 
3 


598 


Salto 










643 












476 












488 













344 












330 












307 












403 












347 












216 












310 












296 












248 














Total 






86 


1 


5,005 


















157 






13, 018 




! 









In the year 1871 the number of scholars in the public schools of the 
department of Montevideo had cousiderablj'' diminished, being only 
4,995, viz, 2,021 boys and 2,974 girls. The number of pupils in private 
schools licensed by the government has increased, as in 1871 it was 2,430, 
viz, 1,714 boys and 716 girls. The number of children receiving iustrac- 
tion in schools having no government license or at home was, in 1871, 
3,080, showing a remarkable increase. To appreciate these figures, we 
give the iDopulation of Uruguay according to the Ahnanach de Gotlia 
for 1873 : 350,000, and the population of JNIontevideo about 50,000 ; in- 
cluding the department, 120,000. 



EDUCATIOI^ IN PORTUGAL 



EDUCATION IN POETUGAL. 



[Note. — The following outline of the educational history of Portugal is taken from 
an article by Alphons Le Eoy, professor in Liege, iu the ^6th yolume of Schmid's Edu- 
cational Cyclopedia.^ 

EAELY HISTORY. 

Portugal is not separated from Spain by any natural boundaries, but 
from the days of Yiriathus and Sertorius it has beeii independent from 
that country by tlie decided wisli of the ]5opulation, who always were 
firmly attached to their national independence. The Eomans, the 
Goths, and Moors in turn imposed their foreign yoke on the descend- 
ants of the old Lusitanians: the first-mentioned left to them the system 
of regularly organized municipalities, the Goths Jaid the foundation of 
the legislative assemblies, in later times called cortes; but neither the 
former nor the latter were able to change the original type of the inhab- 
itants, or to iDroduce an amalgamation with their neighbors. The 
Lusitanians were the first nation on the peninsula who conquered the 
Moors, and for a long time shared the glory of the Spanish chivalry. 
They did not, however, identify their interests with those of their neigh- 
bors; but as soon as possible, in the beginning of the twelfth century, con- 
stituted themselves a separate kingdom under a French family of 
sovereigns. Henry of Burgundy, descendant of Hugh Capet, who had 
come to the peninsula in search of adventures, and who had married 
Theresa, the natural daughter of Alphons YL, King of Leon and Castile, 
was, in the year 1095, by him appointed " Count of Portugal." The name 
" Portugal," which then appeared for the first time in history, only 
meant a portion of the province of Beira. After the death of his father- 
in-law, Henry emancipated himself from the sovereignty of Castile, and 
his son and successor, Alphons L Heuriquez, definitely adopted the 
royal title in the year 11^:0, acknowledging the Pope as his only supreme 
authority, which protected him against the Castilian claims. During 
the following century Portugal assumed its present dimensions. 

PORTUGAL UNDER THE BURGUT^DIAN DYNASTY. 

The Burguudiau dynasty, which by its foreign jiolicy maintained the 
honor of Portugal, did no less for the internal development of the country. 
Portugal, which afterward, through clerical oppression, became a prey to 
deepest ignorance, was, during the latter half of tlie thirteenth century, 
justly considered one of the most euligbtened countries of Europe. This 



54 

it owed cliiefly to the excellent prince Dom Diniz, (Dionysias,) called 
" rei lavardor " — the farmer king — of whom the people, even in our 
days, sing : 

" O rei Dom Diuiz, 
Que fiz quauto quiz !" 

i. e., "King Dom Diuiz did what he pleased." Educated by a learned 
French prelate, Aymeric d'^Ebrard, who understood how to bring out all 
the noble qualities of his mind, he did not content himself with the pro- 
motion of agriculture and the endeavor to secure the future wealth of his 
country by founding a navy and extending commerce, but he also sought, 
as far as lay in his power, to diffuse knowledge among his people. In 
the year 1290 he founded at Lisbon that famous university which, 
eighteen years later, was transferred to Coimbra, brought back to Lisbon 
in 1338 by Alphons II., and finally, in the year 1557, was again firmly 
established at Coimbra by Joao III. Dom Diniz did even more ; he 
took (a very rare case in those times) the most active interest in 
the education, of the lower classes by founding elementary schools, 
which, in his own words, were to enlighten the masses and free them 
from the superstitions with which the clergy filled their minds, in order 
more firmly tb establish their supremacy. His successors, however, did 
not follow up this liberal spirit. King Dom Duarte, and his son Alphons 
v., who founded the first royal library in Portugal, exercised a very 
beneficial influence on education and science. Alphons especially en- 
deavored to keep step with the development of the Paris University, 
but the masses did not reap much benefit from King Dom Diuiz's noble 
intentions. Municipal documents from the year 1385 show that in Lisbon 
the most outrageous superstitions were widely spread, so much so that 
even the clerical authorities had to use energetic measures for sup- 
pressing abuses. There are no official documents whatever regarding 
elementary education till the eighteenth century. The only fact that 
can be ascertained has been communicated by Ferdinand Denis, viz, that 
in 1551 there were in Lisbon 7 teachers of grammar, 31 teachers of read- 
ing, 13 public schools for organ-playing, 14 dancing-schools, and four 
fencing-schools. There were only 2 female teachers who instructed girls 
in reading! but there were 12 public " letter- writers," and 430 jewelers. 
This brief statistical notice shows at one glance the whole civilization 
of Portugal at that period. A Yenetian embassador writes, at the end 
of the sixteenth century, that in Lisbon a large number of Portuguese, 
Spanish, Italian, and Latin books were for sale, but that the prices 
were so high that poor students would rather loan the books day by 
day, paying a certain small sum. The chief school was the school of 
Santa Cruz, which is praised by all the old historians, and for which 
several excellent teachers had been especially called from Paris. The 
University of Coimbra was in the most flourishing condition at the 
time when Camoens studied there, (1530.) One of the professors, Diego 
de Gorea, who brought Buchanan to Coimbra, and who defended the 



55 

philosophy of Aristotle against Kamus, was considered one of the most 
learned humanists in Europe j Yincenz Eabricius, a German, taught 
Greek so thoroughly that Kleynserts (Clenardus) is enthusiastic in his 
praise ; Pedro Kuiiez was a famous teacher of mathematics and physics ; 
Brissot, a Frenchman, was a most enlightened professor of medicine, and 
all the faculties could boast of excellent teachers, who spread the riches 
of their learning among the eager youth and shone as models of brilliant 
dialectics. 

POETUaAIi UNDER THE AVIZ DYNASTY, 1385-1580. 

The royal line of Aviz, which followed the house of Burgundy on the 
throne of Portugal, devoted its attention chiefly to foreign conquests 
and discoveries and to the strengthening of the colonial empire. They 
could not better employ the good natural talents of the Portuguese 
nation and that chivalrous character which is innate in it. The ocean 
opened to them a wide field for adventures and invited them to voyages 
into distant countries. During this glorious period Yasco de Gama 
(1498) discovered the way to India round the Cape of Good Hope ; 
Francisco de Almeida and Alfonso de Albuquerque founded powerful 
empires in India; Alvarez Cabral, in 1500, discovered Brazil, and the 
wealth and power of Portugal reached its zenith. But this countless 
wealth became the source of decadence, the nation became enervated, 
emigration depopulated the country, and the sinister activity of the 
inquisition completed the work of mental and moral decline. 

PORTUGAL UNDER SPANISH RULE, 1581-1610. 

Keligious fanaticism, the most arbitrary despotism, and the greatest 
disorder in the administration, characterized the period of the Spanish 
rule; the navy was destroyed, and the rich Indian possessions passed 
into the hands of the Dutch. The tyranny and avarice of Olivarez, the 
all-powerful minister of the imbecile Spanish king, Philip lY., at last 
stirred up the Portuguese people ; they revolted in 1610, gained their 
independence, and intrusted the guidance of their country to the family 
of Braganza, which is still ruling. Peace with Sfjain was concluded in 
1688, the African possessions and Brazil were returned to Portugal, but 
the great mass of the people, lulled into a mental sleep by ignorance 
and superstition, seemed to have forgotten their glorious past. Com- 
merce did not again revive, manufactures passed into the hands of 
the English, and agriculture was entirely neglected. The Jesuits and 
the nobility divided the revenue of the country between them. Before 
proceeding further, it will be necessary to glance back and relate the 
introduction of the famous Society of Jesus into Portugal. 

FIRST ESTABLISHMENT OF THE JESUITS IN PORTUGAL. 

In the year 1540 King Dom Joao lY. asked the papal see to send him 
two Jesuit fathers, which request was eagerly complied with. One of 



56 

these was Francis Xavier, the apostle of India. After he, in the follow- 
ing year, had sailed for India, the king immediately determined to found 
at Coimbra, by the side of the university, that famous Jesuit college 
from which so many missionaries have gone forth, and which gained 
such a high reputation in the philosophical world by its faithful adher- 
ence to the Aristotelian system of the Middle-Ages. The college at 
Coimbra was the first the Jesuits possessed in Portugal, and it has 
always remained their most imj)ortant stronghold in that country. The 
so-called "free arts" were taught in this college, i. e., languages, Greek 
and Hebrew included, belles-lettres and philosophy, corresponding to 
the lower course of the university 5 the higher course embracing law, 
medicine, and theology. The Jesuits obtained from the king the same 
privileges as the university, and claimed entire independence from that 
institution. The university, at first indifferent, at last became aroused? 
and in 1515 forced the college to open its gates and to submit to 
university inspection. The consequence was a protracted quarrel, which 
ended in favor of the Jesuits. The nation protested, but in vain i the 
king personally introduced the Jesuits into a new and liberally endowed 
building in 1550, for which he himself had drawn the plans. In 1553 
the Jesuits were made independent from the university also with regard to 
theological studies ; two years later half the university was in their hands, 
and all the lay professors were dismissed with life-pensions. A royal 
ordinance, confirmed by a papal bull, gave to them the whole lower 
course, established a separate income for them, and freed them from all 
supervision. In 1558 they obtained the academical privileges for the 
philosophical examinations, although the university should continue to 
bear the expense. Since then, in spite of a last desperate effort, educa- 
tion passed entirely into their hands. The College of Coimbra usually 
numbered 2,000 students, and triumphantly opposed to the advance of 
modern ideas its philosophical catechism, until the moment when a royal 
committee, appointed by the energetic minister Pombal, awakened the 
old complaints against the order, and in judicial form preferred accusa- 
tions against it. 

THE EEF0E:\1S of 3IINISTEE, POMBAL. 

It would be unjust to trace the whole cause of the downfall of the 
Portuguese power to the Jesuits, but it must be confessed that they 
were by no means listless spectators, and that they certainly have not 
a little contributed toward it. If the annals of their transatlantic mis- 
sions show many a glorious page, they cannot be declared free of the 
reproach of having reduced princes and nations in the south of Europe 
to that state of infancy which was their ideal in Paraguay ; they formed 
a state within the state, and their mysterious power showed itself dur- 
ing two centuries in measures which, in the long run, would have re- 
duced to stupidity the most intelligent nation. Some acts of the great 



57 

reformer Pombal (Sebastiao cle Carvalho) may be severely censured, 
but it will always remain his glory boldly to have cut the Gordian knot. 
Endowed with an iron will, and with the clearness of a lofty mind, he 
undertook the grand work of regenerating his country. His burning 
zeal embraced all the public interests, the army, the navy, agriculture, 
and, above all, education. He commenced by banishing the Jesuits 
from the country, and by confiscating all their property. But like Joseph 
II. of Austria, " he took the second step before the first," and attempted 
to carry out his reforms by despotic measures. Fallen into disgrace, he 
died in solitude. Yet his ideas didnot die with him. Even in our days 
does Pombal's spirit animate all the intelligent minds of the Portuguese 
nation. The order of the Jesuits had thus, by a single stroke of the 
pen, been banished from its twenty- four great colleges, and had by one 
blow lost all its influence and wealth. At the same time (July 28, 1759,) 
the secularization of public instruction was decreed, and faculties of 
philosophy and mathematics were founded at the University of Coimbra. 
In the year 1773 Pombal decreed that a primary school should be 
established in every community in the kingdom 5 up to that time the 
number of primary schools in the whole monarchy had not exceeded. 
four hundred. Greek and Latin had hitherto only been taught in the 
convents ; but Pombal established 257 elementary Latin schools, 21 pro- 
fessorships of rhetoric, history, and literature, 27 schools of philosophy, 
where logic, metaphysics, and moral philosophy were taught in a one- 
year's course, and finally, 8 Greek schools. Pombal crowned his work 
by appointing a " superior council of studies," consisting of the rector 
and five professors of the University of Coimbra, a secretary, and six 
other officers ; he imposed a tax on wine and liquor, which, under the 
name of " suhsicUo litei-ario,''^ formed the beginning of a regular income 
for public instruction, and for defraying the expenses of the council of 
studies, to which the management of all educational institutions through- 
out the kingdom was intrusted. The theological seminaries, which had 
been placed under the supervision of the bishops, were endowed with 
some of the confiscated property; any one, either layman or clergyman, 
was empowered to open private schools, on the condition of placing them 
under government inspection and supervision. The University of Coim- 
bra was remodeled according to the plan of Italian universities, and 
several professors were called from Italy ; but the downfall of Pombal, 
in the year 1777, brought back everything to its former condition. 

FROM P0]MBAL'S DOWNFALL TO THE PKESENT TBIE. 

After the downfall of Pombal, the ignorant clergy and the narrow- 
minded and unpatriotic nobility again took the management of the 
government into their hands. Academical instruction became a com- 
mon laughing-stock, and there was a time when any one could obtain a 
degree bj- sending a servant with the required fees to the respective 
authorities. The attendance at the elementary schools decreased to 



58 

such a degree that the average number of scholars dwindled down, from 
24,000 in 1807, to 8,000 in 1828. 

On account of the mental condition of Queen Maria, widow of Pedro 
III., who died iu 1786, the government was intrusted to the heir to the 
crown, Joao VI., the prince of Brazil, in 1799. Wavering between French 
and English influence, the regent excited the anger of Napoleon I, by 
his refusal to close his ports to the English. In 1807 Marshal Junot 
entered Portugal with a French army, and the royal family had to seek 
refuge in Brazil, where they remained till 1821. The Portuguese com- 
plained, and not without cause, that, even after the French had been 
driven out of the country, they had to be governed from a distant colony, 
while at the same time Brazil ceased to be treated as a province. The 
revolution of 1820, which decided the return of the king to Europe, had 
the immediate consequence of introducing a constitutional government 
in Portugal; but, as the Portuguese Cortes denied the Brazilians equal 
rights, they protested and separated from the mother-country, retaining 
however the Braganza dynasty. The first absolutistic reaction of Dom 
Miguel proved a failure : his brother, Dom Pedro, the oldest son of Dom 
Joao YL, resigned his European crown in favor ofhis oldest daughter Dona 
Maria da Gloria. His is the honor of having given to Portugal during his 
short reign the constitution of April 29, 1826, which, iu all its essential 
points, is still in force. During the following years Portugal had to suffer 
the tyranny of Dom Miguel, regent till Dona Maria came of age. This 
state of affairs came to an end in 1832. Two years later Dom Miguel sur- 
rendered, Dom Pedro died, and his daughter Dona Maria, declared of age 
by the Cortes, would have inaugurated a new era of prosperity for her un- 
fortunate country had not the envy and i^assion of the statesmen, their 
egotism and ambition on the one hand, and the excited condition of the 
democratic party on the other, continually produced new disturbances. 
During the fifteen years 1836-1851 there were no less than seventeen rev- 
olutions in Portugal. After the military revolution of Marshal Sal- 
danha in 1851, some changes in the constitution became necessary; the 
party of progress, which hitherto had known no bounds in opposing the 
government in the Cortes, now consented to support the government, and 
lasting peace could be hoped for. The reign of Dom Pedro Y. in 1855 com- 
menced under the most favorable auspices, but the young and beloved 
prince died prematurely l^ovember 11, 1861. His brother Dom Luiz, 
who has received a most liberal education, and is animated with the 
noblest aspirations for the welfare of his country, is zealous in carrying 
out the reforms planned by Pombal, which had been continually retarded 
by the frequent revolutions. The violent political agitations liave at 
last come to an end, and the Portuguese nation, so long a prey to ignor- 
ance and egotistical passions, gradually resumes its proper place among 
the civilized nations of Europe. 



PEESENT STATE OF EDUCATIOXIN 

PORTUGAL. 



[Note. — For tlie following report on primary education in Portugal we are indebted 
to an article on this subject in Novo Mundo, (April 23, 1873,) a monthly illustrated 
Portuguese journal, published in New York, and kindly forwarded to this Office by the 
editor, Mr. J. C. Rodrigues. In the brief account on secondary and special instruction we 
have chiefly followed Professor Le Roy's article in Schmid's Educational Cyclopedia; 
and also a report by the Brazilian minister at Lisbon, kindly forwarded to this Bureau 
by the Brazilian minister at Washington.] 

PUniART EDUCATION. — COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 

The decree of September 20, 1844, divided i)riinary instruction into 
two grades, prescribing the following course of instruction for the first 
grade : Eeading, writing, arithmetic, elements of Christian* doctrine and 
morality, grammatical exercises, principles of chorography and history 
of Portugal ; and for the second grade : Portuguese grammar, linear 
drawing, general history and geography, sacred history, elementary 
arithmetic, elementary geometry. Eecently the course of instruction 
in the first grade has been somewhat enlarged, transferring to it some 
of the studies of the second grade, penmanship, legal system of weights 
and measures, &c. It must be said that there is no general and well- 
defined i)rogramme for the elementary schools, and that the condition 
of the larger portion of the elementary schools of the kingdom is unsat- 
isfactory, i^artly on account of the incapacity of the teachers, partly be- 
cause the few schools which have good teachers want pupils, many 
parents keeping their children from school to assist them in their agri- 
cultural and industrial pursuits, so that few children learn more than 
to read badly and to write incorrectly. Thus the brutality and stupidity 
of the parents, and the culpable negligence of the government in j)er- 
mitting the law which imposes fines and even the loss of political rights 
on teachers neglecting their duty, and on parents who do not send their 
children between the ages of seven and fifteen years to school, to remain 
a dead letter, are the causes of the lamentable disproportion (one to 
sixteen) between the number of children attending school and the num- 
ber that reach any degree of proficiency. The cause of the great ignor- 
ance of most of the teachers is obvious, and will remain so till the gov- 
ernment pays them a better salary, as very few young men care to be- 
come teachers when they have the prospect of making an infinitely 
better living in almost any other profession or trade, while as teachers 
they see nothing before them but a life full of vexation and want. 



60 

ATTENDANCE AT SCHOOL. 

During the scliolastic year 1871-1872 the public elementary schools 
(day- and night-schools) had enrolled 113,097 children, viz, 92,834 boys 
and 20,2G3 girls; but only 52,190, viz, 41,599 boys and 10,591 girls, at- 
tended regularly ; and at the end of the year only 7,107, viz, 5,919 boys 
and 1,188 girls, could receive the character " prompt in attendance." 
In comparing these figures "^ith the last census of Portugal we arrive at 
the following deplorable result : Proportion of attendance to the, male 
population, 1 to 50 ; and to the female population, 1 to 215. The 
scholastic year of ten months has about 230 school-days, approximately 
representing 1,440 school-hours for every primary school. 

WANT OP GOOD TEXT-BOOKS. 

The want of good elementary text-books is another cause of the little 
progress made in the public schools. There are no text-books officially 
adopted for primary instruction. The council of public instruction 
sanctions some every year, but leaves the choice out of a constantly in- 
creasing number to the teacher in every school. The same is the case 
with regard to the methods of instruction; each teacher follows the one 
which he prefers, and some follow no method whatever. This want of 
uniformity in the methods of public instruction shows itself even in the 
schools of one and the same city. Some teachers use the simultaneous, 
method, others the mixed (mutual and simultaneous) method, and a few 
the so-called Portuguese method which the Viscount of Castilho en- 
deavored to introduce in the country. 

INSPECTION. 

The inspection of schools, which in every country is acknowledged as 
essential for the organization of public instruction, is in the most mis- 
erable condition. There are in each of the twenty-one districts of the 
kingdom commissioners of education, whose duty it is to inspect the 
schools ; bnt they do not exercise their power, nor are they able to do 
so, being almost all rectors or professors of national lyceums, receiving 
as commissioners only a very insignificant remuneration, scarcely suffi- 
cient to pay their traveling expenses, even if they should only undertake 
to visit the schools once a year. They are under the supervision of the 
respective political authorities, who, however, are generally not able to- 
inspect the schools, and do not receive any instructions as regards such 
duties, and who, even if they wished to fulfill their duties in this respect,, 
could only do so by neglectiug their administrative duties. The result 
of all this is that, with rare exceptions, the public schools do not enable 
pupils to pass the examination in primary subjects which is required for 
admission to the lyceum. Of all the pupils marked "prompt" in the 
private school-examinations, not one in fifty is fit for the public examin- 
ation of admission. 



61 

TEACHERS. 

The salaries of teachers are wretched. Teachers for lifetime {profes- 
sores vitalicios) receive 150 millreas in Lisbon, Oporto, aud Fuuchal, 
(about $175,) and in other places 100 millreas. Temporary teachers 
receive 140 millreas in Lisbon, and 90 in other i)laces. Teachers are 
obliged to keep school six hours per day five days each "^^eek. As a 
general rule school is held during day-time every week-day, except 
Thursdays and ecclesiastical holidays, in two sessions, one in the morn- 
ing and one in the afternoon ; but if local circumstances make it neces- 
sary, the school-honrs may be transferred to the evening. . 

NIGHT-SCHOOLS. 

There are in various places night-schools for adults, partly kept by 
the regular teacher of the public school, partly by private individuals. 
The Minister Marteuo Ferrao was very active in creating this class of 
schools, and organized them by a regulation of November 28, 1867. As 
a general rule the night-schools are confined to the instruction of adults, 
only in exceptional cases boys younger than fourteen years are admitted. 
There are no night-schools for females. Those night-schools which are 
kept by the regular public- school teacher are free, and are in operation 
during the whole scholastic year, either three or five times per week. 
Teachers who keep night-schools are exempt from teaching one of the 
daily sessions, and receive a small remuneration either from the gov- 
ernment, the district, or municipal authorities. Night-schools kept by 
private individuals are supported either by corporations or by private 
munificence. The total number of night-schools in the kingdom is about 
580, with 7,000 scholars. 

ESTABLISHIMENT OF NEW SCHOOLS. 

With regard to the establishment of new primary schools, the govern- 
ment is authorized to establish schools for both sexes, aud in any local- 
ity, without consulting the legislative assembly, keeping in the limits, 
however, of the sum voted for the contingent expenses of primary 
instruction. The way of proceeding is briefly this : some town, or parish, 
or municipal authority wishing the establishment of a new school makes 
an application to the governor of the province, making at the same time 
the indispensable offer of a school-house and school-furniture, and also, if 
possible, books for poor scholars, rewards for diligent scholars, a dwell- 
ing-house for the teacher, &c. The governor refers the matter to the gen- 
eral council of public instruction, mentioning the local circumstances, 
the necessity for such a school, the probable number of pupils, &c. The 
consulting council gives its opinion, and if this is favorable, the execu- 
tive decrees the establishment of the school, publishing it in the official 
journal, appoints a committee to see to it that all the conditions are ful- 
filled, and also to examine into the sanitary condition of the school- 



- 62 

building'. After this has been found to be satisfactory, a teacher is 
appointed, after a competitive examination, from the various applicants 
for the place. Candidates must be more than twenty years old, pos- 
sess certificates of ability and good moral character, and must have 
satisfied the law of military service. 

STATISTICS OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 



For, 
boys. 



For 

girls. 



Total. 



TEACHEUS. 



Male. 



Female. 



Total. 



Enrolled. 



Regular 
in attend- 
ance. 



Aveiro 

Beja 

Braga 

Bragan^a 

Castello Branco 

Coimbra , 

Evora 

Faro 

Gnarda 

Leiria 

Lisboa 

Portalegre 

Porto 

Santarera 

Vianna do Castello 

Villa Real 

Vizeu 

Total of the continent 

Angra 

Funchal 

Horta 

Ponta Delgada 

Total of the islands . . . 

Total of the kingdom . 



122 
53 

106 

107 
91 

129 
40 
46 

174 
77 

135 
52 

131 
92 
83 

142 



1,802 



108 

Tgio 



140 

64 
117 
122 
107 
148 

49 

50 
200 

88 
181 

64 
159 
108 

88 
163 
251 



122 
53 

106 

107 
91 

129 
40 
46 

174 
77 

137 
52 

131 
92 
83 

142 

2-22 



2,099 



1,804 



37 
334 



145 



108 



2,244 



1, 912 



140 

64 

117 

122 

107 

148 

49 

50 

200 

88 

183 

64 

159 

109 

88 

163 

251 



8,155 
3,661 
7,769 
4,762 
4,784 
7,506 
2, 520 

2, 638 
9, 268 

3, 421 
10, 557 

1,313 
9, 422 

4, 566 
5,943 
6, 862 

12, 021 



2, 102 



105, 168 



2,084 
1,377 
2, 615 
1, 8.53 



38 



7, 929 



2,620 
898 
3,219 
3,083 
1,939 
4,095 
1,363 
850 
3,221 
2,308 
6,450 
654 
5,646 
1,465 
3,327 
3,470 
2,655 



47, 263 



1, 362 

653 

1,876 

1,036 



4, 927 



336 



2,248 I 113,097 



52, 190 



SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

After the establishment of a constitutional government, secondary 
education in Portugal, which up to that time had been confined to the 
study of the Greek and Eoman classics, took a new direction. It cannot 
be denied that all the political parties which succeeded each other in the 
government of this beautiful country were animated by the most laud- 
able zeal for promoting the intellectual welfare of the people, and did all 
in their power to ditfuse education in every part of the country. The 
condition of the political organization, and the varied interests spring- 
ing from it, made a complete reform of all grades of public instruction 
more indispensable than ever. 

The establishment of national lyceums in the cajjitals of the adminis- 
trative districts tended greatly to the better development of secondary in- 
struction by enlarging the course of instruction, and by introducing the 
elements of physical and mathematical sciences, of natural history, of 
the graphic arts, and their application to commerce, industry, and agri- 
culture, thus realizing an eminently civilizing and liberal idea, as the. 
Marquis de Avila e Bolame well remarked in a circular proposing a re- 



63 

form of the course of instractiou. The national lycieiims form in fact the 
weightiest element in the reformed system of general education. The 
institutions are frequented by all those who wish to prepare themselves 
for higher scientific studies, and by those who intend to devote them- 
selves to more arduous labors, which, i^erfected by the light of science, 
are the essential conditions of the life and prosperity of modern society. 
It is acknowledged, however, that these institutions cannot well answer 
their true object so long as elementary education is so backward, and 
so long as there are no intermediate schools where pupils can study the 
first elements of literary and scientific knowledge, which, according to 
the natural development of the intellectnal faculties, are to be perfected 
by secondary instruction, as the essential basis of a solid education, and 
not with the sole aim of forming the preparatory studies for the differ- 
ent spheres of public life. Superior instruction alone entitles a man to 
aspire to government offices, and the young men are led by by-i3aths 
through which they can in less time enter upon superior studies and ob- 
tain academic degrees. For this reason the secondary studies are gone 
through superficially, and sink down to the level of public instruction, 
producing, with rare exceptions, an incomplete and mechanical educa- 
tion, utterly prejudicial to those solid and thorough studies which alone 
constitute true mental culture. These facts were duly appreciated, and 
revealed the sore point in this system of public education, the inevitable 
decadence of secondary studies, which, reduced to simple preparatory in- 
struction, could not contribute anything toward the moral and intellect- 
ual culture of the nation, toward true civilization and true liberty. In 
order that secondary instruction may reach this lofty aim, it is indis- 
pensable to make it truly useful, organizing it on a broad and solid 
basis, calculated for the general and harmonious culture of all the human, 
faculties. 

Literary education in Portugal is at present imparted by professional 
instruction ; the sciences and their application hold their proper -plsice 
in the course of instruction, and the national lyceums are the centers of 
this general education, so profitable to the individual and to society. 
Considering that scientific education would always be defective without 
the greatest possible amount of literary studies, and with a view of 
making the lyceums answer this twofold end, the number of lyceums 
has been limited to those absolutely necessary, establishing at the same 
time, by the side of the lyceums, courses of instruction where some of 
those subjects may be studied which are not taught in the lyceums. 

It was thought indispensable to create academical districts, which 
might form the other great centers of the literary and scientific admin- 
istration of the public and private establishments. Economical and 
other reasons determined the choice of these districts, and Lisbon, 
Oporto, and Coimbra, as centers of special and superior instruction, 
were designated as the seats of the three districts. The small revenue 
of the state requires the utmost parsimony in the public expenses, and 



64 

this is the cause of tlie miserable salaries of tlie professors, who are the 
worst-paid class of public servants. The full liberty of teaching which 
exists in Portugal, has produced many private secondary schools, which 
keep up a strong emulation with the public schools. The course of 
instruction in the lyceums embraces the following subjects : Portuguese, 
Latin, arithmetic, geometry, elements of algebra, philosophy, morals? 
principles of natural law, rhetoric, classical and especially Portuguese 
literature, history, chronology, and geography. Some of the lyceums 
introduce also other subjects in their course ; thus at Lisbon : Greek, 
Hebrew, French, English, Arabic, commercial sciences, applied mechan- 
ics: atOporto: Greek, French, English, and German; atBragaandEvora* 
Greek, French, English, book-keeping ; in Portalegre, Yilla Eeal, and 
Castello Branco : agriculture, &c. 

There are no recent statistics of secondary instruction ; therefore the 
statistics of 1855 are given ; according to these there were in the 20 
lyceal districts 210 teachers, and 3,338 students. 

SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. 

There is only one institution for superior instruction, viz, the Univer- 
sity of Coimbra, which has five faculties, viz : 1. Theology ; 2. Law ; 
3. Medicine, surgery, and pharmacy ; 4. Mathematics ; . and 5. Philoso- 
]3hy, which means only natural sciences, physics, chemistry, &c. ; as also 
agriculture, technology, and veterinary surgery. There are three 
degrees, viz : Baccalaureate, licentiate, and doctor. 

University instruction in Coimbra, till quite recently, lacked life, 
and there never was a complete and harmonious group of lectures on 
the humanitarian sciences and philology, and on ancient and modern, 
literature, such as the faculte des lettres in France. Till the year 1859, 
logic, morals, and metaphysics were confined to the lyceums, where 
the antiquated methods reigned supreme. When, impelled by the pow- 
erful influence of modern ideas, a young man emancipated himself and 
resisted the soporific influence of traditional methods, he would rather 
IDlunge into the whirlpool of political party agitation than employ his 
leisure to increase his knowledge and thus to become better able to 
grapple with the great questions of the day. There are some very hon- 
orable exceptions, but mostly of Portuguese who have studied in for- 
eign countries. The enervating climate and the heat of revolutionary 
I)assions have doubtless contributed toward keeping up this turbulent, 
impatient spirit ; but the Portuguese race has such a happy disposi- 
tion, that there is every reason to hope for the best results from the 
reforms which have been introduced. In this conviction the late king, 
by a decree of June 8, 1859, founded at his own expense, in Lisbon, a 
sort of faculte des lettres. This higher college has five professorships : 
1, Portuguese and universal history; 2, Greek and Latin literature; 
3, modern European, especially Portuguese, literature; 4, i)hilosophy; 
and 5, history of philosophy. The professors have equal rank with 



65 

those of the University of Coimbra.' After the two-jears' course has 
been finished, there is an examination, and theses have to be defended, 
after which the successful candidates receive the diploma of gradmdos 
em letras, (graduates of literature.) This institution has exercised a 
beneficial influence on the Uuiversity of Coimbra, and ancient and mod- 
ern languages and literature are studied there more than formerly. 

SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. 

All the Portuguese special schools are officially classed under supe- 
rior instruction. Prominent above all others is the Royal Polytechnic 
School at Lisbon-, organized in 1779 under the name " Eoyal Naval 
Academy," reorganized by a decree of December 10, 1851, and since 1860 
under the ministry of the interior, because it is intended as well for 
civil engineers as for military engineers and artillery officers. Scholars 
enter at the age of fourteen, after having passed a very rigorous exam- 
ination in Erench, logic, linear drawing, arithmetic, elements of algebra, 
geometry, trigonometry, mathematical geography, elements of natural 
history, as likewise in all the elementary studies. The course of in- 
struction lasts from three to four years, and during this time the mili 
tary scholars, called "cadets," engage in practical exercises in that 
branch of the military service in which they are to serve. The school 
is under the direction of a lieutenant-colonel. There are eleven profes- 
sorships, each with a professor and an assistant professor, viz, mathe- 
matics, mechanics, surveying, astronomy, physics and chemistry, geol- 
ogy, mineralogy ^nd metallurgy, botany and agriculture, zoology and 
comparative physiology, political economy, and commercial and adminis- 
trative law. Connected with the school there is a library and a well- 
arranged museum of natural history. 

The polytechnic academy at Oporto is at the same time a naval 
school, a business college, and a higher school of arts and trades. It 
has nineteen professors and assistants. 

There is no school of mining, but mining engineers study at foreign 
schools, and the government allows every year at least three to study 
at the public expense. 

Portugal possesses ten agricultural schools of different grades, viz, six 
instruction-farms in the country, three district-schools, in Lisbon, Evora 
and Coimbra, and finally the Normal -School of Agriculture in Lisbon' 
connected with the district-school in that city, under whose supervision 
there is since 1853 the botanical garden at Ajuda. Every district- 
school has a model-farm, the revenues from which belong to the propri- 
etor, and which is managed by him with a special view to agricultural 
instruction. The government pays him a fixed salary, and furnishes an 
assistant. There are ten free places in every district-school. Students 
enter at the age of sixteen years, and the course of instruction lasts 
three years ; in the normal institute at Lisbon it lasts five years. 
There are two institutions for art and industry, one in Lisbon, founded 
5 E 



66 



in 1836, and united with the polytechnic school in 18^4, with twelve 
professors and assistants, and one in Oporto, connected with the poly- 
technic academy, with eight professors and assistants There are m 
these institutions, among the rest, conrses of historical pamtmg, anat- 
omy, optics, perspective, &c. 



LB 'II 



